<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><rss xmlns:dc="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xmlns:content="http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom" version="2.0" xmlns:itunes="http://www.itunes.com/dtds/podcast-1.0.dtd" xmlns:googleplay="http://www.google.com/schemas/play-podcasts/1.0"><channel><title><![CDATA[ER]]></title><description><![CDATA[Sporadic book reviews around and about Bolivia.
In English, French & Spanish.]]></description><link>https://erblog.net</link><image><url>https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F1e4!,w_256,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fbucketeer-e05bbc84-baa3-437e-9518-adb32be77984.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4f22e8a3-b4ea-49e8-b8ba-31fdfd7db218_1280x1280.png</url><title>ER</title><link>https://erblog.net</link></image><generator>Substack</generator><lastBuildDate>Thu, 11 Jun 2026 03:12:58 GMT</lastBuildDate><atom:link href="https://erblog.net/feed" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml"/><copyright><![CDATA[ER]]></copyright><language><![CDATA[en]]></language><webMaster><![CDATA[elresenista@substack.com]]></webMaster><itunes:owner><itunes:email><![CDATA[elresenista@substack.com]]></itunes:email><itunes:name><![CDATA[ER]]></itunes:name></itunes:owner><itunes:author><![CDATA[ER]]></itunes:author><googleplay:owner><![CDATA[elresenista@substack.com]]></googleplay:owner><googleplay:email><![CDATA[elresenista@substack.com]]></googleplay:email><googleplay:author><![CDATA[ER]]></googleplay:author><itunes:block><![CDATA[Yes]]></itunes:block><item><title><![CDATA[The institutional framework of colonial Spanish America - by John Lynch]]></title><description><![CDATA[#Review #UltimosDias]]></description><link>https://erblog.net/p/the-institutional-framework-of-colonial</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://erblog.net/p/the-institutional-framework-of-colonial</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[ER]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Wed, 10 Jun 2026 10:43:42 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ovya!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe363cd2b-5180-46c2-821a-98325943cf99_2000x2000.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<blockquote><h4>Pick your language</h4><p><em><a href="https://erblog.net/i/201223510/english">English</a> </em>|<em> <a href="https://erblog.net/i/201223510/francais">Fran&#231;ais</a> </em>| <em><a href="https://erblog.net/i/201223510/espanol">Espa&#241;ol</a></em></p></blockquote><h2>English</h2><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ovya!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe363cd2b-5180-46c2-821a-98325943cf99_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ovya!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe363cd2b-5180-46c2-821a-98325943cf99_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ovya!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe363cd2b-5180-46c2-821a-98325943cf99_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ovya!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe363cd2b-5180-46c2-821a-98325943cf99_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ovya!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe363cd2b-5180-46c2-821a-98325943cf99_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ovya!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe363cd2b-5180-46c2-821a-98325943cf99_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/e363cd2b-5180-46c2-821a-98325943cf99_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:709131,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://erblog.net/i/201223510?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe363cd2b-5180-46c2-821a-98325943cf99_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ovya!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe363cd2b-5180-46c2-821a-98325943cf99_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ovya!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe363cd2b-5180-46c2-821a-98325943cf99_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ovya!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe363cd2b-5180-46c2-821a-98325943cf99_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ovya!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe363cd2b-5180-46c2-821a-98325943cf99_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>In the last 2-3 years I&#8217;ve wondered sometimes if it wouldn&#8217;t be a good idea to review aside from books also academic articles. Many of these are long and/or rich enough in content that, for the purposes of this little blog, there isn&#8217;t much difference. Besides, if it is true that some books don&#8217;t always reach &#8220;non-specialized&#8221; readers &#8212; the &#8220;ciudadano de a pie,&#8221; as we say in Bolivia &#8212; the same is true, and even more true of academic articles. Exploring this kind of literature it is possible to see for example that there are matters that have been part of the debate in Latin American history for decades, providing a valuable perspective on the present, and yet the general public largely ignores. And ignores, I think, without there being any serious reason for it. To access &#8220;specialized&#8221; information, it used to be that one had to be given a student ID, but now, more and more, it&#8217;s a decision anyone has in their hands. It can almost always be done for free. It&#8217;s just a matter of knowing where to look online, taking note of names and titles, and getting used to reading occasionally with a translation app at hand. As an invitation to do just that, what follows is my review of an academic article written by one of my favorite historians.</p><h4>First a little overview</h4><p><em>The institutional framework of colonial Spanish America</em> is an essay on what &#8220;crucial detail&#8221; had to do with the erosion of government authority in colonial America. Its main parts are a balance between two distinct government policies that the Spanish crown practiced before and after 1750, that is, around what is called the period of &#8220;Bourbon reform.&#8221; But before, in the very first paragraphs, there is a kind of state of the field, a brief reflection on how the study itself of colonial history had evolved until the 1990s. This in order to say, first, that &#8220;derecho indiano,&#8221; the old school, and the other more recent school of social history are better off combining forces. Secondly, that their combination has helped expand what is known about why there was, in the first place, a first colonial era and then a second one from around 1750. The aforementioned &#8220;crucial detail&#8221; comes down to this last thing: why, and it involves some kind of alignment &#8212; &#8220;born of experience&#8221; though &#8220;theoretically illegal&#8221; &#8212; that was beginning to break already by the early 1600s.</p><p>Lynch was born in Boldon, in northern England. He studied history in the early 1950s in the University of Edinburgh and then Latin American history at University College London. His PhD advisor was Robin Humphreys, who held the first chair of Latin American studies in the UK. Humphreys, he said later, steered him towards the late 18th century, little known at the time. This led him to study the relation between Iberian metropolis and American colonies, and ultimately &#8220;the deeper roots&#8221; of independence, in a way widely seen today as groundbreaking. For example, the Argentine historian Tulio Halper&#237;n Donghi, himself an authority in the field, has referred to Lynch as a &#8220;master historian&#8221; and his 1983 essay <em>Bol&#237;var and the caudillos</em> as &#8220;a brief masterpiece.&#8221; Lynch taught Latin American history at the University of Liverpool (1954-61) and University College London (1961-87), where he became also director of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Latin_American_Studies">ILAS</a> until he retired (1974-87). He wrote many articles and over a dozen books, including biographies of Rosas, Bol&#237;var and San Mart&#237;n. The article I review here was published in 1992 and again, in an essay collection, in 2001.</p><h4>The article in question</h4><p>Lynch&#8217;s main idea is that from the days of conquest in the early 1500s, a web of quid pro quos took form little by little and effectively <em>became</em> what we call today America&#8217;s colonial society. Rather than depending on public money (direct disbursements from the crown), conquest voyages and battles were funded by a kind of seed capital equivalent of their day: &#8220;a private enterprise,&#8221; he explains. Contracts of advances in cash and future shares of the spoils of war, both a kind of credit, first solved the need of weapons supplies, then morphed into &#8220;grants of labour and resources,&#8221; then into &#8220;vested interests in land, mining and commerce.&#8221; It was this process that &#8220;consolidated local elites,&#8221; he argues. One decisive consequence, as the bureaucracy was also absorbed into the local sphere, was that the institutions of the colonial state came to reflect &#8220;not only the sovereignty of the crown&#8221; in the Peninsula, but also &#8220;the power of the elites&#8221; in America. And in spite of &#8220;all the linkage&#8221; these two forces were &#8220;never totally merged.&#8221;</p><p>Lynch cites two episodes of serious friction between them. One is from May 1659, when Friar Francisco de la Cruz, in his capacity as &#8220;superintendent,&#8221; was sent to the mining city of Potos&#237; (modern-day Bolivia) to investigate the distortion of the mita (a draft labor system recovered from precolonial times by the Spaniards). Cruz observed abuses on the part of mine owners against Indians recruited for the mita, and &#8220;took a strong stand in favour of the Indians,&#8221; says Lynch. Cruz also discovered the mita was no longer being delivered as labor but in silver, and that instead of remitted to the crown in full, about half of these sizable deliveries was staying in the hands of mine owners, to be used for hiring self-employed miners or as a rent from mine ownership itself. Immediately he &#8220;ordered a stop&#8221; to all this, or attempted to, anyway. His initiative was cut short when he appeared murdered one night on April 1660, &#8220;the victim of poison in his hot chocolate.&#8221;</p><p>The other episode was due to the discovery of debased silver coins in the Potos&#237; mint. The crown needed this currency to pay its creditors in Europe, but beginning in 1633, in view of its low purity, the creditors refused to go on accepting it. So it was resolved to send an official who was similar to Cruz in the scope of his writ, Francisco de Nestares Mar&#237;n, to restore the Potos&#237; coinage and impose fines on those responsible for the &#8220;fraud.&#8221; Lynch says that in 1650 this man had one of them executed by garroting, which may have been a fatal mistake, for he himself ended up dying the same night as Cruz, according to Lynch, &#8220;in equally suspicious circumstances.&#8221; But Lynch notes that an even worse mistake on the part of the crown, just as it appointed special envoys like Cruz and Nestares, was allowing the sale of public office to people from the same circle as those who were found guilty of misconduct. Coincidentally this also began to occur in 1633 and gained momentum beginning in 1678, as positions of increasingly higher rank became available for sale.</p><p>Lynch argues that the sale of public office means the crown in a way &#8220;was party to the compromise.&#8221; Although it would have benefited from abolishing the mita and restoring the Potos&#237; coinage, the crown was hesitant to take stronger action &#8220;out of fear&#8221; of causing the mining economy to &#8220;collapse.&#8221; And of provoking &#8220;resistance and rebellion&#8221; among the local elites. Too many interests were tied together. The merchants who debased the currency were &#8220;often the same people who advanced credit to the mines&#8221; and &#8220;guaranteed a salary&#8221; to public officials. Public officials in turn, &#8220;with the connivance of caciques,&#8221; forced local demands on Indian labor and resources that undermined the monopoly of the crown. Lynch describes this chain as &#8220;a classic pattern of consensus&#8221; that broke the law at all levels. However, he says, with the shift to Bourbon &#8220;absolutism&#8221; around 1750 the pattern was not changed, only stirred and made more difficult to govern. Indeed the crown was then attempting to purge public posts of American interests when, in Lynch&#8217;s view, the &#8220;logical outcome&#8221; should have been &#8220;more consensus&#8221; and setting the course for independent &#8220;political development.&#8221;</p><h4>My commentary</h4><p>This article by Lynch covers several topics of colonial history in just a few pages, so it is probably best to read it alongside other more descriptive sources on those topics or, failing that, a lot of Wikipedia. That&#8217;s at least what I had to do to work through it. Lynch is an enjoyable read; there are quite a few comments praising his clarity and good style. But certain things, for example his concept of &#8220;colonial consensus&#8221; here, seem to me easy to misunderstand without context. According to what he says, this does not mean there was ever a &#8220;pact&#8221; between the king of Spain and a handful of traitors to the homeland, but rather a kind of &#8220;traditional bargaining&#8221; between what the parties involved hinted at but never openly demanded and what they were actually willing to concede. In other words a form of mutual manipulation by means of beating around the bush. Put this way it surely does not sound very flattering, but for Lynch it has the merit of recognizing the role of the power broker in his transition from crown official to ally of the local elites: &#8220;his career from unpaid official to local entrepreneur.&#8221;</p><p>The other big dilemma concerning what we understand by &#8220;local elites&#8221; depends on which period, which viceroyalty, which small and remote town the question refers to. There was certainly a conscious use of family ties and patronage to secure influence, as Lynch says. There also appears to have been a specific preference in this regard, because people sought appointments &#8220;above all in their own districts,&#8221; even going so far as to call them &#8220;patrias&#8221; (homelands). This is what leads Lynch to question the Bourbon reorganization of the colonial state. He sees it as an attempt to turn back the clock when there were already clear signs of regional attachment, that is, of American identities in the making. This of course was not beneficial to the indigenous population. In fact, as Lynch puts it, &#8220;there was now competition among exploiters.&#8221; Even so, it is worth remembering the enormous span of time at issue here. As I say, in his discussion Lynch leaps across centuries, from the days of Atahualpa and Pizarro to the era of the &#8220;large-scale rebellions&#8221; that began in the mid-1700s. During all that time, the ethnic and cultural make of colonial society in America was less fixed than our imagination nowadays is prepared to accept. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h2>Fran&#231;ais</h2><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dM_F!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3dca0ca4-9b8c-437f-80e2-cba59029e6ad_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dM_F!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3dca0ca4-9b8c-437f-80e2-cba59029e6ad_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dM_F!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3dca0ca4-9b8c-437f-80e2-cba59029e6ad_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dM_F!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3dca0ca4-9b8c-437f-80e2-cba59029e6ad_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dM_F!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3dca0ca4-9b8c-437f-80e2-cba59029e6ad_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dM_F!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3dca0ca4-9b8c-437f-80e2-cba59029e6ad_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/3dca0ca4-9b8c-437f-80e2-cba59029e6ad_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:815634,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://erblog.net/i/201223510?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3dca0ca4-9b8c-437f-80e2-cba59029e6ad_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dM_F!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3dca0ca4-9b8c-437f-80e2-cba59029e6ad_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dM_F!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3dca0ca4-9b8c-437f-80e2-cba59029e6ad_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dM_F!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3dca0ca4-9b8c-437f-80e2-cba59029e6ad_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dM_F!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3dca0ca4-9b8c-437f-80e2-cba59029e6ad_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Ces 2-3 derni&#232;res ann&#233;es, je me suis parfois demand&#233; s&#8217;il ne serait pas bon de faire la recension non seulement de livres mais aussi d&#8217;articles acad&#233;miques. Bon nombre d&#8217;entre eux sont suffisamment longs et/ou riches en contenu pour que, aux fins de ce petit blog, il n&#8217;y ait pas grande diff&#233;rence. De plus, s&#8217;il est vrai que certains livres ne parviennent pas toujours aux lecteurs &#8220;non sp&#233;cialis&#233;s&#8221; &#8212; au &#8220;ciudadano de a pie,&#8221; comme on dit en Bolivie &#8212; c&#8217;est aussi le cas, et plus encore avec des articles acad&#233;miques. En explorant ce type de litt&#233;rature on peut voir par exemple qu&#8217;il existe des sujets qui font partie du d&#233;bat en histoire de l&#8217;Am&#233;rique Latine depuis des d&#233;cennies, apportant une pr&#233;cieuse perspective sur le pr&#233;sent, et qui pourtant demeurent largement m&#233;connus du grand public. Et cela, je crois, alors qu&#8217;il n&#8217;existe plus vraiment de raison de poids. Pour acc&#233;der &#224; l&#8217;information &#8220;sp&#233;cialis&#233;e,&#8221; il fallait autrefois &#234;tre muni d&#8217;une inscription universitaire, mais d&#233;sormais, de plus en plus, c&#8217;est une d&#233;cision que chacun a entre les mains. On peut presque toujours le faire gratuitement. Il suffit de savoir o&#249; chercher sur internet, de noter des noms et des titres, et de s&#8217;habituer &#224; lire parfois avec une application de traduction &#224; port&#233;e de main. &#192; titre d&#8217;invitation &#224; faire pr&#233;cis&#233;ment cela, ce qui suit est ma recension d&#8217;un article universitaire &#233;crit par l&#8217;un de mes historiens pr&#233;f&#233;r&#233;s.</p><h4>D&#8217;abord un bref r&#233;sum&#233;</h4><p><em>Le cadre institutionnel de la colonie Espagnole en Am&#233;rique</em> est un essai sur le &#8220;d&#233;tail crucial&#8221; qui a contribu&#233; &#224; l&#8217;&#233;rosion de l&#8217;autorit&#233; gouvernementale dans l&#8217;Am&#233;rique coloniale. Ses principales parties consistent en une mise en balance de deux politiques d&#8217;&#233;tat diff&#233;rentes que la couronne Espagnole a pratiqu&#233;es avant et apr&#232;s 1750, c&#8217;est-&#224;-dire, autour de ce qu&#8217;on appelle la p&#233;riode des &#8220;r&#233;formes Bourboniennes.&#8221; Mais auparavant, dans les premiers paragraphes, on trouve une sorte d&#8217;&#233;tat de la question, une br&#232;ve r&#233;flexion sur la mani&#232;re dont l&#8217;&#233;tude m&#234;me de l&#8217;histoire coloniale avait &#233;volu&#233; jusqu&#8217;aux ann&#233;es 1990. Cela pour dire, premi&#232;rement, que le &#8220;derecho indiano,&#8221; l&#8217;ancienne &#233;cole, et l&#8217;&#233;cole plus r&#233;cente de l&#8217;histoire sociale fonctionnent mieux en unissant leurs forces. Deuxi&#232;mement, que leur combinaison a permis d&#8217;&#233;largir ce que l&#8217;on sait sur les raisons pour lesquelles il y eut, pour commencer, une premi&#232;re puis une seconde &#233;poque coloniale plus ou moins &#224; partir de 1750. Le susdit &#8220;d&#233;tail crucial&#8221; est pr&#233;cis&#233;ment cette derni&#232;re question: pourquoi, et elle implique un certain type d&#8217;alignement &#8212; &#8220;d&#233; de l&#8217;exp&#233;rience&#8221; bien que &#8220;th&#233;oriquement ill&#233;gal&#8221; &#8212; qui commen&#231;a &#224; se d&#233;faire d&#232;s le d&#233;but des ann&#233;es 1600.</p><p>Lynch est n&#233; &#224; Boldon, dans le nord de l&#8217;Angleterre. Il a &#233;tudi&#233; l&#8217;histoire au d&#233;but des ann&#233;es 1950 &#224; la University of Edinburgh puis l&#8217;histoire de l&#8217;Am&#233;rique Latine &#224; la University College London. Son directeur de th&#232;se fut Robin Humphreys, premier titulaire d&#8217;une chaire d&#8217;&#233;tudes Latino-Am&#233;ricaines au Royaume-Uni. Humphreys, dira-t-il plus tard, fut celui qui orienta son attention vers la fin du 18e si&#232;cle, une p&#233;riode peu connue &#224; l&#8217;&#233;poque. Cela le conduisit &#224; &#233;tudier la relation entre la m&#233;tropole Ib&#233;rique et les colonies Am&#233;ricaines, et en fin de compte &#8220;les racines profondes&#8221; de l&#8217;ind&#233;pendance, d&#8217;une mani&#232;re aujourd&#8217;hui largement consid&#233;r&#233;e comme novatrice. Par example, l&#8217;historien Argentin Tulio Halper&#237;n Donghi, lui-m&#234;me une autorit&#233; en la mati&#232;re, a qualifi&#233; Lynch de &#8220;ma&#238;tre historien&#8221; et son essai de 1983 <em>Bol&#237;var et les caudillos</em>, de &#8220;petit chef-d&#8217;&#339;uvre.&#8221; Lynch a enseign&#233; l&#8217;histoire de l&#8217;Am&#233;rique Latine &#224; la University of Liverpool (1954-61) puis &#224; la University College London (1961-87), o&#249; il fut &#233;galement directeur de l&#8217;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Latin_American_Studies">ILAS</a> jusqu&#8217;&#224; sa retraite (1974-87). Il a &#233;crit de nombreux articles et plus d&#8217;une douzaine de livres, dont des biographies de Rosas, Bol&#237;var et San Mart&#237;n. L&#8217;article dont je fais ici la recension a &#233;t&#233; publi&#233; en 1992 puis de nouveau, dans un recueil d&#8217;essais, en 2001.</p><h4>L&#8217;article en question</h4><p>L&#8217;id&#233;e principale de Lynch est que depuis les jours de la conqu&#234;te au d&#233;but des ann&#233;es 1500s, un r&#233;seau de quid pro quos a pris forme peu &#224; peu et est effectivement <em>devenu</em> ce que nous appelons aujourd&#8217;hui la soci&#233;t&#233; coloniale Am&#233;ricaine. Au lieu de d&#233;pendre de fonds publics (des d&#233;boursements directs de la couronne), les exp&#233;ditions et batailles de la conqu&#234;te &#233;taient financ&#233;es par une sorte de capital d&#8217;amor&#231;age de l&#8217;&#233;poque: une &#8220;initiative priv&#233;e,&#8221; explique-t-il. Des contrats d&#8217;avances en esp&#232;ces et des parts de butin de guerre &#224; percevoir ult&#233;rieurement, tous deux une forme de cr&#233;dit, r&#233;pondirent d&#8217;abord au besoin d&#8217;approvisionnement en armes, puis se transform&#232;rent en &#8220;concessions de main-d&#8217;&#339;uvre et de ressources,&#8221; puis en &#8220;int&#233;r&#234;ts pr&#233;bend&#233;s dans la terre, les mines et le commerce.&#8221; C&#8217;est ce processus qui &#8220;consolida les &#233;lites locales,&#8221; soutient-il. Une cons&#233;quence d&#233;cisive, &#224; mesure que la bureaucratie &#233;tait elle aussi absorb&#233;e dans l&#8217;orbite locale, fut que les institutions de l&#8217;&#233;tat colonial en vinrent &#224; refl&#233;ter &#8220;pas seulement la souverainet&#233; de la couronne&#8221; dans la P&#233;ninsule, mais aussi &#8220;le pouvoir des &#233;lites&#8221; en Am&#233;rique. Et malgr&#233; &#8220;tous ces liens,&#8221; ces deux forces &#8220;ne fusionn&#232;rent jamais compl&#232;tement.&#8221;</p><p>Lynch cite deux &#233;pisodes de d&#233;saccord entre elles. L&#8217;un date de Mai 1659, lorsque Fray Francisco de la Cruz, en qualit&#233; de &#8220;surintendant,&#8221; fut envoy&#233; dans la ville mini&#232;re de Potos&#237; (actuelle Bolivie) pour examiner les distorsions de la mita (un syst&#232;me de recrutement obligatoire de main-d&#8217;&#339;uvre repris par les Espagnols &#224; l&#8217;&#233;poque pr&#233;coloniale). Cruz observa des abus commis par les propri&#233;taires de mines contre les Indiens recrut&#233;s pour la mita, et &#8220;adopta une position ferme en faveur des Indiens,&#8221; dit Lynch. Cruz d&#233;couvrit &#233;galement que la mita n&#8217;&#233;tait plus vers&#233;e sous forme de travail mais d&#8217;argent, et qu&#8217;au lieu d&#8217;&#234;tre remise int&#233;gralement &#224; la couronne, pr&#232;s de la moiti&#233; de ces versements consid&#233;rables restait entre les mains des propri&#233;taires de mines, pour &#234;tre utilis&#233;e dans l&#8217;embauche de mineurs ind&#233;pendants ou comme revenu tir&#233; de la propri&#233;t&#233; des mines elle-m&#234;me. Imm&#233;diatement, Cruz &#8220;ordonna qu&#8217;il soit mis fin&#8221; &#224; tout cela, ou du moins il essaya. Son initiative fut interrompue lorsqu&#8217;il fut retrouv&#233; assassin&#233; une nuit d&#8217;Avril 1660, &#8220;victime de poison dans son chocolat chaud.&#8221;</p><p>L&#8217;autre &#233;pisode fut la d&#233;couverte de monnaies d&#8217;argent d&#233;valu&#233;es frapp&#233;es &#224; Potos&#237;. La couronne avait besoin de cette monnaie pour payer ses cr&#233;anciers en Europe, mais &#224; partir de 1633, compte tenu de sa faible teneur, les cr&#233;anciers refus&#232;rent de continuer &#224; l&#8217;accepter. Il fut alors d&#233;cid&#233; d&#8217;envoyer un officier dont l&#8217;&#233;tendue des pouvoirs &#233;tait comparable &#224; celle de Cruz, Francisco de Nestares Mar&#237;n, afin de r&#233;tablir le monnayage de Potos&#237; et d&#8217;infliger des amendes aux responsables de la &#8220;fraude.&#8221; Lynch dit qu&#8217;en 1650 cet homme fit ex&#233;cuter l&#8217;un d&#8217;entre eux par garrot, ce qui pourrait avoir &#233;t&#233; une erreur fatale, puisqu&#8217;il finirait lui aussi par mourir la m&#234;me nuit que Cruz, selon Lynch, &#8220;dans des circonstances tout aussi suspectes.&#8221; Mais Lynch pr&#233;cise qu&#8217;une erreur encore plus grave de la part de la couronne, alors m&#234;me qu&#8217;elle nommait des envoy&#233;s sp&#233;ciaux comme Cruz et Nestares, fut d&#8217;autoriser la vente de charges publiques &#224; des personnes du m&#234;me cercle que celles qui avaient &#233;t&#233; reconnues coupables de mauvaise conduite. Co&#239;ncidemment cela commen&#231;a &#233;galement &#224; se produire en 1633 et prit de l&#8217;ampleur &#224; partir de 1687, &#224; mesure que des charges de rang toujours plus &#233;lev&#233; &#233;taient mises en vente.</p><p>Lynch soutient que la vente des charges publiques signifie que la couronne d&#8217;une certaine mani&#232;re &#8220;&#233;tait partie prenante de l&#8217;accord.&#8221; Bien qu&#8217;elle e&#251;t eu int&#233;r&#234;t &#224; abolir la mita et &#224; r&#233;tablir le monnayage de Potos&#237;, la couronne h&#233;sitait &#224; agir plus fermement &#8220;par crainte&#8221; que l&#8217;&#233;conomie mini&#232;re ne &#8220;s&#8217;effondre.&#8221; Et de provoquer &#8220;r&#233;sistance et r&#233;bellion&#8221; parmi les &#233;lites locales. Trop d&#8217;int&#233;r&#234;ts &#233;taient imbriqu&#233;s les uns dans les autres. Les marchands qui d&#233;valuaient la monnaie &#233;taient &#8220;souvent les m&#234;mes personnes qui accordaient des cr&#233;dits aux mines&#8221; et qui &#8220;garantissaient un salaire&#8221; aux fonctionnaires publics. Les fonctionnaires publics &#224; leur tour, &#8220;avec la complicit&#233; des caciques,&#8221; imposaient aux Indiens des exigences en mati&#232;re de travail et de ressources qui sapaient le monopole de la couronne. Lynch d&#233;crit cette cha&#238;ne comme &#8220;un mod&#232;le classique de consensus&#8221; qui enfreignait la loi &#224; tous les niveaux. Pourtant, dit-il, avec le passage &#224; &#8220;l&#8217;absolutisme&#8221; Bourbonien vers 1750, ce mod&#232;le ne fut pas modifi&#233;, il fut simplement bouscul&#233; et rendu plus difficile &#224; gouverner. En effet la couronne cherchait alors &#224; purger les charges publiques des int&#233;r&#234;ts Am&#233;ricains alors que, selon Lynch, le &#8220;r&#233;sultat logique&#8221; aurait d&#251; &#234;tre &#8220;davantage de consensus&#8221; et jeter les bases d&#8217;un &#8220;d&#233;veloppement politique&#8221; ind&#233;pendant.</p><h4>Mon commentaire</h4><p>Cet article de Lynch aborde plusieurs sujets d&#8217;histoire coloniale en quelques pages, il est donc probablement bon de le lire &#224; c&#244;t&#233; d&#8217;autres sources plus descriptives sur ces sujets ou, &#224; d&#233;faut, de beaucoup de Wikip&#233;dia. C&#8217;est du moins ce que j&#8217;ai d&#251; faire pour avancer dans la lecture. Lynch est agr&#233;able &#224; lire; il existe de nombreux commentaires louant sa clart&#233; et son bon style. Mais certaines choses, par exemple ici son concept de &#8220;consensus colonial,&#8221; me semblent faciles &#224; mal comprendre sans contexte. Selon ce qu&#8217;il dit, cela ne signifie pas qu&#8217;il y eut un jour un &#8220;pacte&#8221; entre le roi d&#8217;Espagne et quelques tra&#238;tres &#224; la patrie, mais plut&#244;t une sorte de &#8220;tradition de marchandage&#8221; entre ce que les parties concern&#233;es laissaient entendre sans jamais le demander ouvertement et ce qu&#8217;elles &#233;taient r&#233;ellement dispos&#233;es &#224; conc&#233;der. Autrement dit une forme de manipulation mutuelle en tournant autour du pot. Pr&#233;sent&#233; ainsi cela n&#8217;est pas sans doute tr&#232;s flatteur, mais pour Lynch cela a le m&#233;rite de reconna&#238;tre le r&#244;le du courtier du pouvoir dans son passage d&#8217;officiel de la couronne &#224; alli&#233; des &#233;lites locales: &#8220;sa trajectoire de fonctionnaire sans salaire &#224; entrepreneur local.&#8221;</p><p>L&#8217;autre grand dilemme quant &#224; ce que l&#8217;on entend par &#8220;&#233;lites locales&#8221; d&#233;pend de la p&#233;riode, de la vice-royaut&#233;, du petit village isol&#233; auquel la question se rapporte. Il y avait bien un usage conscient des liens familiaux et du client&#233;lisme afin de s&#8217;assurer de l&#8217;influence, comme le dit Lynch. Il semble qu&#8217;il y avait aussi une certaine pr&#233;f&#233;rence en la mati&#232;re, puisque les gens recherchaient des nominations &#8220;avant tout dans leurs propres districts,&#8221; allant m&#234;me jusqu&#8217;&#224; les d&#233;signer comme leurs &#8220;patries.&#8221; C&#8217;est ce qui am&#232;ne Lynch &#224; mettre en question la r&#233;organisation Bourbonienne de l&#8217;&#233;tat colonial. Il y voit une tentative de remonter le temps alors qu&#8217;il existait d&#233;j&#224; clairement des signes d&#8217;attachement r&#233;gional, c&#8217;est-&#224;-dire, des identit&#233;s Am&#233;ricaines en train de se former. Cela ne fut &#233;videmment pas b&#233;n&#233;fique pour la population indig&#232;ne. De fait, comme le formule Lynch, &#8220;il existait d&#233;sormais une concurrence entre exploiteurs.&#8221; Quoi qu&#8217;il en soit, il convient de rappeler l&#8217;&#233;norme quantit&#233; de temps en jeu ici. Comme je l&#8217;ai dit, dans sa r&#233;flexion Lynch traverse des centaines d&#8217;ann&#233;es, depuis l&#8217;&#233;poque d&#8217;Atahualpa et Pizarro jusqu&#8217;&#224; l&#8217;&#232;re des &#8220;r&#233;bellions &#224; grande &#233;chelle&#8221; qui commen&#231;a au milieu des ann&#233;es 1700s. Pendant tout ce temps, la composition ethnique et culturelle de la soci&#233;t&#233; coloniale en Am&#233;rique fut moins fixe que ce que notre imagination est aujourd&#8217;hui capable d&#8217;admettre. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h2>Espa&#241;ol</h2><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EQM0!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa88fd6af-81dc-426a-950e-46c9351f4945_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EQM0!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa88fd6af-81dc-426a-950e-46c9351f4945_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EQM0!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa88fd6af-81dc-426a-950e-46c9351f4945_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EQM0!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa88fd6af-81dc-426a-950e-46c9351f4945_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EQM0!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa88fd6af-81dc-426a-950e-46c9351f4945_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EQM0!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa88fd6af-81dc-426a-950e-46c9351f4945_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EQM0!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa88fd6af-81dc-426a-950e-46c9351f4945_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EQM0!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa88fd6af-81dc-426a-950e-46c9351f4945_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EQM0!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa88fd6af-81dc-426a-950e-46c9351f4945_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EQM0!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa88fd6af-81dc-426a-950e-46c9351f4945_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>En estos &#250;ltimos 2-3 a&#241;os a veces me he preguntado si no ser&#237;a buena idea rese&#241;ar adem&#225;s de libros tambi&#233;n art&#237;culos acad&#233;micos. No pocos de estos son lo suficientemente largos y/o ricos en contenido como para que, a efectos de este blogsito, no haya gran diferencia. Adem&#225;s, si es verdad que ciertos libros no siempre llegan a manos de lectores &#8220;no especializados&#8221; &#8212; al &#8220;ciudadano de a pie,&#8221; como se dice en Bolivia &#8212; lo mismo ocurre, y ocurre aun m&#225;s con art&#237;culos acad&#233;micos. Explorando este tipo de literatura es posible ver por ejemplo que hay temas que llevan d&#233;cadas formando parte del debate en historia de Am&#233;rica Latina, aportando una valiosa perspectiva sobre el presente, y que sin embargo el p&#250;blico general en gran parte desconoce. Y desconoce, creo yo, sin haber ya una raz&#243;n de peso. Para acceder a la informaci&#243;n &#8220;especializada,&#8221; sol&#237;a ser que a uno hab&#237;a que equiparlo con una matr&#237;cula de estudiante, pero ahora, cada vez m&#225;s, es una decisi&#243;n que cualquiera tiene en sus manos. Casi siempre se puede hacer de forma gratuita. Solo es cuesti&#243;n de saber d&#243;nde buscar en internet, tomar nota de nombres y t&#237;tulos, y adaptarse a leer a veces con una app de traducci&#243;n a la mano. A modo de invitaci&#243;n a hacer justamente eso, lo que sigue es mi rese&#241;a de un art&#237;culo acad&#233;mico escrito por uno de mis historiadores favoritos.</p><h4>Primero un breve resumen</h4><p><em>El marco institucional de la colonia Espa&#241;ola en Am&#233;rica</em> es un ensayo acerca de qu&#233; &#8220;detalle crucial&#8221; tuvo que ver con la erosi&#243;n de la autoridad de gobierno en la Am&#233;rica colonial. Sus partes principales son un balance entre dos diferentes pol&#237;ticas de estado que la corona Espa&#241;ola practic&#243; antes y despu&#233;s de 1750, o sea, alrededor de lo que se llama el periodo de &#8220;reforma Borb&#243;nica.&#8221; Pero antes, en los primeros p&#225;rrafos, hay una especie de estado de la cuesti&#243;n, una breve reflexi&#243;n sobre c&#243;mo el estudio en s&#237; de historia colonial hab&#237;a evolucionado hasta los 1990s. Esto para decir, primero, que el &#8220;derecho indiano,&#8221; la vieja escuela, y la otra m&#225;s reciente escuela de la historia social funcionan mejor combinando fuerzas. Segundo, que su combinaci&#243;n ha permitido ampliar lo que se sabe sobre por qu&#233;, para empezar, hubo una primera y despu&#233;s una segunda &#233;poca colonial m&#225;s o menos a partir de 1750. El susodicho &#8220;detalle crucial&#8221; viene a ser esto &#250;ltimo: por qu&#233;, e involucra un cierto tipo de alineamiento &#8212; &#8220;fruto de la experiencia&#8221; aunque &#8220;te&#243;ricamente ilegal&#8221; &#8212; que fue rompi&#233;ndose ya desde inicios de los 1600s.</p><p>Lynch naci&#243; en Boldon, al norte de Inglaterra. Estudi&#243; historia a inicios de los 1950s en la University of Edinburgh y luego historia de Am&#233;rica Latina en la University College London. Su tutor de doctorado fue Robin Humphreys, que fue el primer catedr&#225;tico de estudios Latinoamericanos del Reino Unido. Humphreys, dir&#237;a despu&#233;s, fue quien dirigi&#243; su atenci&#243;n hacia fines del siglo 18, un periodo poco conocido en aquella &#233;poca. Eso lo llev&#243; a estudiar la relaci&#243;n entre metr&#243;poli Ib&#233;rica y colonias Americanas, y en &#250;ltima instancia &#8220;las ra&#237;ces profundas&#8221; de la independencia, de una manera hoy ampliamente vista como innovadora. Por ejemplo, el historiador Argentino Tulio Halper&#237;n Donghi, &#233;l mismo una autoridad en la materia, se ha referido a Lynch como un &#8220;maestro historiador&#8221; y a su ensayo de 1983 <em>Bol&#237;var y los caudillos</em> como &#8220;una peque&#241;a obra maestra&#8221;. Lynch ense&#241;&#243; historia Latinoamericana en la University of Liverpool (1954-61) y la University College London (1961-87), donde tambi&#233;n fue director del <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Latin_American_Studies">ILAS</a> hasta su jubilaci&#243;n (1974-87). Escribi&#243; muchos art&#237;culos y m&#225;s de una docena de libros, incluyendo biograf&#237;as de Rosas, Bol&#237;var y San Mart&#237;n. El art&#237;culo que rese&#241;o aqu&#237; se public&#243; en 1992 y nuevamente, en una colecci&#243;n de ensayos, en 2001.</p><h4>El art&#237;culo en cuesti&#243;n</h4><p>La idea principal de Lynch es que desde los d&#237;as de la conquista a inicios de los 1500s, una red de quid pro quos tom&#243; forma poco a poco y en efecto <em>pas&#243; a ser</em> lo que llamamos hoy la sociedad colonial Americana. En lugar de depender de dinero p&#250;blico (desembolsos directos de la corona), los viajes y batallas de la conquista se financiaban con una especie de capital semilla de la &#233;poca: &#8220;una iniciativa privada,&#8221; explica. Contratos de adelantos en efectivo y cuotas de bot&#237;n de guerra a futuro, ambos un tipo de cr&#233;dito, resolvieron primero la necesidad de suministro de armas, luego se transformaron en &#8220;concesiones de mano de obra y recursos,&#8221; luego en &#8220;intereses prebendados en tierra, miner&#237;a y comercio.&#8221; Fue este proceso el que &#8220;consolid&#243; las &#233;lites locales,&#8221; sostiene. Una consecuencia decisiva, a medida que la burocracia era tambi&#233;n absorbida en la &#243;rbita local, fue que las instituciones del estado colonial pasaron a reflejar &#8220;no solo la soberan&#237;a de la corona&#8221; en la Pen&#237;nsula, sino tambi&#233;n &#8220;el poder de las &#233;lites&#8221; en Am&#233;rica. Y a pesar de &#8220;toda la ligaz&#243;n&#8221; estas dos fuerzas &#8220;nunca llegaron a fusionarse.&#8221;</p><p>Lynch cita dos episodios de desencuentro entre ellas. Uno es de Mayo 1659, cuando Fray Francisco de la Cruz, en calidad de &#8220;superintendente,&#8221; fue enviado a la ciudad minera de Potos&#237; (actual Bolivia) para inspeccionar la distorsi&#243;n de la mita (un sistema de reclutamiento laboral obligatorio recuperado de tiempos precoloniales por los Espa&#241;oles). Cruz observ&#243; abusos por parte de los propietarios de minas contra los Indios reclutados para la mita, y &#8220;adopt&#243; una postura f&#233;rrea a favor de los Indios,&#8221; dice Lynch. Cruz tambi&#233;n descubri&#243; que la mita ya no se entregaba como mano de obra sino en plata, y que en lugar de remitirse en su totalidad a la corona, cerca de la mitad de estas considerables entregas se quedaba en manos de los propietarios de minas, para ser usada contratando mineros cuentapropistas o como una renta por la propiedad de minas en s&#237;. Inmediatamente Cruz &#8220;orden&#243; poner fin&#8221; a todo esto, o eso intent&#243;, al menos. Su iniciativa fue truncada cuando apareci&#243; asesinado una noche de Abril 1660, &#8220;v&#237;ctima de veneno en su chocolate caliente.&#8221;</p><p>El otro episodio fue por el hallazgo de monedas de plata devaluadas en la acu&#241;aci&#243;n de Potos&#237;. La corona necesitaba esta moneda para pagar a sus acreedores en Europa, pero a partir de 1633, en vista de su baja ley, los acreedores se negaron a seguir acept&#225;ndola. Entonces se determin&#243; enviar un oficial que era similar a Cruz en el alcance de sus potestades, Francisco de Nestares Mar&#237;n, a restaurar la acu&#241;aci&#243;n de Potos&#237; y multar a los responsables del &#8220;fraude.&#8221; Lynch dice que en 1650 este hombre mand&#243; ejecutar a garrotazos a uno de ellos, cosa que podr&#237;a haber sido un fatal error, pues &#233;l a su vez acabar&#237;a muriendo la misma noche que Cruz, seg&#250;n Lynch, &#8220;en circunstancias igual de sospechosas.&#8221; Pero aclara Lynch que un error a&#250;n peor por parte de la corona, al tiempo que nombraba enviados especiales como Cruz y Nestares, fue permitir la venta de cargos p&#250;blicos a personas del mismo c&#237;rculo que quienes hab&#237;an sido hallados culpables de mala conducta. Coincidentemente esto tambi&#233;n empez&#243; a ocurrir en 1633 y cobr&#243; impulso a partir de 1687, a medida que se pon&#237;an a la venta cargos de rango cada vez de m&#225;s alto.</p><p>Lynch sostiene que la venta de cargos p&#250;blicos significa que la corona en cierto modo &#8220;era part&#237;cipe del acuerdo.&#8221; Aunque le habr&#237;a convenido abolir la mita y restaurar la acu&#241;aci&#243;n de Potos&#237;, la corona era reacia a actuar con m&#225;s fuerza &#8220;por miedo&#8221; a que la econom&#237;a minera &#8220;colapsara.&#8221; Y a provocar &#8220;resistencia y rebeli&#243;n&#8221; entre las &#233;lites locales. Hab&#237;a demasiados intereses interconectados. Los comerciantes que devaluaban la moneda eran &#8220;a menudo las mismas personas que avanzaban cr&#233;ditos a las minas&#8221; y &#8220;garantizaban un salario&#8221; a los funcionarios p&#250;blicos. Los funcionarios p&#250;blicos a su vez, &#8220;con complicidad de los caciques,&#8221; impon&#237;an a los Indios demandas de mano de obra y recursos que socavaban el monopolio de la corona. Lynch describe esta cadena como &#8220;un patr&#243;n cl&#225;sico de consenso&#8221; que infring&#237;a la ley a todo nivel. Sin embargo, dice, con el cambio hacia el &#8220;absolutismo&#8221; Borb&#243;nico alrededor de 1750 el patr&#243;n no cambi&#243;, solo fue agitado y hecho m&#225;s dif&#237;cil de gobernar. En efecto la corona estaba entonces intentando purgar los cargos p&#250;blicos de intereses Americanos cuando, en opini&#243;n de Lynch, el &#8220;resultado l&#243;gico&#8221; debi&#243; haber sido &#8220;m&#225;s consenso&#8221; y sentar las bases de un &#8220;desarrollo pol&#237;tico&#8221; independiente.</p><h4>Mi comentario</h4><p>Este art&#237;culo de Lynch abarca varios temas de historia colonial en pocas p&#225;ginas, as&#237; que probablemente sea bueno leerlo al lado de otras fuentes m&#225;s descriptivas sobre esos temas o, en su defecto, mucha Wikipedia. Al menos eso es lo que he tenido que hacer yo para avanzar con la lectura. Lynch es ameno de leer; existen bastantes comentarios elogiando su claridad y buen estilo. Pero ciertas cosas, por ejemplo aqu&#237; su concepto de &#8220;consenso colonial,&#8221; me parece que son f&#225;ciles de malentender sin contexto. Seg&#250;n lo que dice, esto no significa que hubo alguna vez un &#8220;pacto&#8221; entre el rey de Espa&#241;a y unos cuantos traidores a la patria, sino m&#225;s bien una especie de &#8220;tradici&#243;n de regateo&#8221; entre lo que las partes involucradas insinuaban pero nunca ped&#237;an abiertamente y lo que realmente estaban dispuestas a conceder. O sea una forma de manipulaci&#243;n mutua por medio de andarse con rodeos. Dicho as&#237; seguramente no ha de sonar muy halagador, pero para Lynch tiene el m&#233;rito de reconocer el rol del mediador pol&#237;tico en su paso de oficial de la corona a aliado de las &#233;lites locales: &#8220;su trayectoria de funcionario sin sueldo a empresario local.&#8221;</p><p>El otro dilema grande acerca de qu&#233; se entiende por &#8220;&#233;lites locales&#8221; depende de a qu&#233; periodo, a qu&#233; virreinato, a qu&#233; peque&#241;o y remoto pueblo se refiere la pregunta. Hab&#237;a s&#237; un uso consciente de lazos familiares y clientelismo para asegurarse influencia, como dice Lynch. Al parecer hab&#237;a tambi&#233;n cierto tipo de preferencia en ello, porque la gente buscaba nombramientos &#8220;sobre todo en sus propios distritos,&#8221; llegando incluso a referirse a ellos como &#8220;patrias.&#8221; Esto es lo que lleva a Lynch a cuestionar la reorganizaci&#243;n Borb&#243;nica del estado colonial. &#201;l la ve como un intento de retroceder en el tiempo cuando ya claramente hab&#237;a signos de apego regional, es decir, de identidades Americanas en ciernes. Esto desde luego no fue beneficioso para la poblaci&#243;n ind&#237;gena. De hecho, como lo pone Lynch, &#8220;exist&#237;a ahora competencia entre explotadores.&#8221; De todos modos, conviene recordar la enorme cantidad de tiempo que est&#225; aqu&#237; en juego. Como digo, en su discusi&#243;n Lynch atraviesa cientos de a&#241;os, desde los d&#237;as de Atahualpa y Pizarro hasta la era de las &#8220;rebeliones a gran escala&#8221; que empez&#243; a mediados de los 1700s. En todo ese tiempo, la composici&#243;n &#233;tnica y cultural de la sociedad colonial en Am&#233;rica fue menos fija de lo que nuestra imaginaci&#243;n hoy en d&#237;a es capaz de aceptar. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><blockquote><p><em>The <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/156946">edition</a> I used for this review.</em></p></blockquote>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Elections 2025, Pt. 1: Poor old García Linera]]></title><description><![CDATA[#Roundup]]></description><link>https://erblog.net/p/elections-2025-pt-1</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://erblog.net/p/elections-2025-pt-1</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[ER]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 11 May 2025 04:06:27 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S9zc!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb7a7859-f08c-431f-9b6c-3cff694f031d_2000x2500.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<blockquote><h4>Pick your language</h4><p><em>English</em></p><p><em>Fran&#231;ais</em></p><p><em>Espa&#241;ol</em></p></blockquote><h2>English</h2><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S9zc!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb7a7859-f08c-431f-9b6c-3cff694f031d_2000x2500.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S9zc!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb7a7859-f08c-431f-9b6c-3cff694f031d_2000x2500.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S9zc!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb7a7859-f08c-431f-9b6c-3cff694f031d_2000x2500.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S9zc!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb7a7859-f08c-431f-9b6c-3cff694f031d_2000x2500.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S9zc!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb7a7859-f08c-431f-9b6c-3cff694f031d_2000x2500.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S9zc!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb7a7859-f08c-431f-9b6c-3cff694f031d_2000x2500.jpeg" width="1456" height="1820" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S9zc!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb7a7859-f08c-431f-9b6c-3cff694f031d_2000x2500.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S9zc!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb7a7859-f08c-431f-9b6c-3cff694f031d_2000x2500.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S9zc!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb7a7859-f08c-431f-9b6c-3cff694f031d_2000x2500.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S9zc!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb7a7859-f08c-431f-9b6c-3cff694f031d_2000x2500.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Painting the scene of postwar Europe in the early 20th century, the Canadian economist, John K. Galbraith, once said that &#8220;the politically most mature and enlightened&#8221; at the time &#8220;by far were the socialists&#8221;, and that &#8220;they had temporary successes in Germany, Austria and most especially in Russia&#8221;. Nowadays, looking to the new world, one might think the same is perhaps true of the current scene in Latin America. After a period of roughly three decades ending in the 1990s, widely despised as the neoliberal era, there has been a comeback of left-wing parties in several countries: in Chile, Venezuela, Bolivia, M&#233;xico or Colombia, for instance. And wherever this recently or briefly stopped being the case, as with Argentina&#8217;s Milei or Brazil&#8217;s Bolsonaro, a lot of the rhetoric still alludes to the left as an anchor point, which seems like a chain effect rather than a new chapter.</p><p>In the case of Bolivia, after being forced to abandon the country in 2019, former heads of state Evo Morales and &#193;lvaro Garc&#237;a Linera clearly illustrate this state of affairs. According to their critics, Morales and Garc&#237;a Linera were incompetent, if not overtly corrupt, and this even if they vow to the contrary is evident in economic matters. According to Morales and Garc&#237;a Linera themselves, however, the fact that they were ousted actually opens the door to the only real enemy that was there all along: the neoliberal, racist right. So which version is correct? The situation described in the Milenio Foundation&#8217;s latest <a href="https://archive.org/details/2024-milenio-informe-milenio-46">annual report</a> is of course not the whole story, but it does provide some leads.</p><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://erblog.net/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Thanks for reading El Rese&#241;ista! Subscribe for free to receive new posts and support my work.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><p>The report says, for instance, that public debt has increased since 2023, standing at over $36 billion as of June 2024, which represents 81% of Bolivia&#8217;s GDP. Out of this amount, almost all (73%) is fiscal debt, which the report attributes to an exchange policy that increasingly relies solely on central bank loans. This is particularly concerning given that, since 2011, the Bolivian Central Bank has had only temporary appointees to chairman position, presumably to ensure that continuing to borrow is a go. The negative effect this has on national reserves of foreign currency was not really felt up until 2014, when the fossil fuel boom that had boosted Bolivia&#8217;s economy since the early 2000s finally came to an end. &#8220;But the current conditions are different&#8221;, says the report. &#8220;If this trend continues, pressure will be felt to depreciate the currency&#8221;. And that is what has been happening.</p><p>This message has been repeatedly stated, shouted and hurled by Bolivian economists onto the public for a decade now, to no avail. People&#8217;s neglect may be due to the fact that since 1985 &#8212; when a number of so-called neoliberal reforms started being used to quell a hyperinflation of more than 10,000% &#8212; Bolivians have had no first-hand experience of just what is a variable exchange rate, what is behind a sudden rise in everyday prices, or what a military dictatorship looks like. It&#8217;s a conversation that was long overdue; and Bolivia&#8217;s population is young. According to the census of 2012, 42% of the population was between the ages of 15 and 39 a decade ago, so indeed most Bolivians&#8217; sole experience of governance is the MAS party, as led by Morales and Garc&#237;a Linera, with nothing else to compare with.</p><p>Then came the ousting of these two men in 2019, a shorter and bumpy government during the pandemic under Jeanine &#193;&#241;ez (positioned by succession and now in prison), and finally a new MAS government under a new face: former Finance Minister Luis Arce. In the absence of any solid alternative (at least before he turned against his own allies), choosing Arce as candidate was ingenious. It shows that the MAS party, or someone in it, was able to recognize money was the most pressing problem, and that elections would be defined on that basis. Indeed, the most politically &#8220;mature&#8221; and &#8220;enlightened&#8221; at that moment was whoever the MAS party&#8217;s campaign manager may have been. But can they repeat the feat this coming August 2025?</p><p>A recent linguistics <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20250424154926/https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F128993248%2FSpotting_borrowed_keywords_A_telling_remark_made_by_former_Bolivian_Vice_President_%25C3%2581lvaro_Garc%25C3%25ADa_Linera">article</a> made at the Louisiana State University happens to focus on something that is perhaps useful to make a forecast: examining the rhetoric of former Vice President &#193;lvaro Garc&#237;a Linera, as featured in a talk he gave last March in Buenos Aires, Argentina. The local press has also mentioned this talk, pointing to a clear slip of the tongue on the part of Garc&#237;a Linera, when he said: &#8220;Who has the dollars? The private sector. So I grab the private sector by the neck, and I say: Give me your dollars.&#8221;</p><p>At first, the reaction to this remark was such that not much later even a left-wing <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20250424191944/https://www.laizquierdadiario.com/La-charlataneria-de-Alvaro-Garcia-Linera">news outlet</a> from Argentina, <em>La Izquierda Diario</em>, had to brand it as &#8220;windbag talk&#8221;. Bolivian newspapers were therefore probably right in citing Garc&#237;a Linera&#8217;s lack of delicacy, although they didn&#8217;t manage to anchor public debate around it for long. The thing is, no one is ever too inclined to empathize with the private sector; it doesn&#8217;t matter how violent Garc&#237;a Linera&#8217;s neck remark may have been. This is so even if the term &#8220;private sector&#8221; also refers to the 70% of Bolivian households resorting to self-employment to get by, as noted several times in the Milenio report. But Bolivian newspapers didn&#8217;t stress this important detail, and people usually won&#8217;t read a report that is over a hundred pages long. Meanwhile, Garc&#237;a Linera&#8217;s talk has already been buried under a pile of headlines about the worsening crisis and approaching elections.</p><p>Importantly, the linguistics article suggests that Garc&#237;a Linera may in fact have a discourse strategy, that this strategy is most likely nothing new, and yet that it might still prove effective in the coming months. The reason for this is largely a network effect. The article points out: given that Garc&#237;a Linera is an intellectual <em>and</em> a vice president, he is often likened to other writer-activists in Bolivia&#8217;s left-wing tradition. He of course does not shy away from this sort of comparison; in fact he welcomes it. His invitation to give a talk on &#8220;what is the state?&#8221; at Universidad San Mart&#237;n, in Buenos Aires, should therefore not be surprising. If one does the job of hearing the full recording, as described in the article, they will find that the neck remark actually showed up several times. After each one, it turns out the crowd of Argentinian college students didn&#8217;t react with shock, but rather applauded in a state of near nirvana.</p><p>It was only in Bolivia that Garc&#237;a Linera&#8217;s neck remark caused indignation, and even then, it probably didn&#8217;t affect his core constituency, namely another crowd of college students in whose anguish the former vice president seems to find potential. In fact, the word &#8220;anguish&#8221; appeared a total of 20 times during his talk, always as part of some pyromaniac comment that seemed to have come right out of Steven Bannon&#8217;s <em>Breitbart </em>playbook: &#8220;The angry voices, properly directed, have latent political power.&#8221;</p><p>As Garc&#237;a Linera well knows, this anguish turned to anger is fueled by economic crises like the one Bolivia is only starting to go through and the Milenio report describes. Quite alarmingly, towards the end of his applauded talk, Garc&#237;a Linera said: &#8220;To oppression you must add hope. When you only have oppression and misery, there is always a lower echelon of misery below. And people endure. You have no idea how much people can endure.&#8221;</p><p>A key question, then, is how those people Garc&#237;a Linera speaks of are actually doing. And it turns out this question is a &#8220;paradox&#8221;, according to the Milenio report. Although Bolivia&#8217;s unemployment rate has dropped consistently after the pandemic (from 10.8% in 2020 to 3.9% in 2023), the report warns that this doesn&#8217;t necessarily mean more income. As it explains, the sustained deterioration of Bolivian labor markets means an increase in self-employment is actually a symptom that every day there are fewer formal jobs and fewer well-paying jobs available.</p><p>Hence the fact that 70% (and according to the ILO, by 2025 even 82%) of Bolivian households is making ends meet in the &#8220;private sector&#8221;, keeping as many dollars as they can under the mattress, and out of Garc&#237;a Linera&#8217;s hands. But the &#8220;perverse effect&#8221; of these type of strategies, the report says, is they lead to the incorporation of more and ever younger family members into the workforce, potentially &#8220;sacrifizing future income and opportunities to break out of poverty&#8221; for good. Here again, paradoxically, one has to grudgingly agree with Garc&#237;a Linera: &#8220;people endure.&#8221; So long as they do, he and his friends will keep on winning by walk-over. &#182;</p><p><em>Thanks to Bolivian economist Mario Napole&#243;n Pacheco for reviewing this article and checking it for errors. It was his suggestion to add the updated ILO percentage.</em></p><h2>Fran&#231;ais</h2><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qkei!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F48aa9f79-44a3-4f6e-a5cd-2b4413fad269_2000x2500.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qkei!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F48aa9f79-44a3-4f6e-a5cd-2b4413fad269_2000x2500.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qkei!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F48aa9f79-44a3-4f6e-a5cd-2b4413fad269_2000x2500.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qkei!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F48aa9f79-44a3-4f6e-a5cd-2b4413fad269_2000x2500.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qkei!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F48aa9f79-44a3-4f6e-a5cd-2b4413fad269_2000x2500.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qkei!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F48aa9f79-44a3-4f6e-a5cd-2b4413fad269_2000x2500.jpeg" width="1456" height="1820" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/48aa9f79-44a3-4f6e-a5cd-2b4413fad269_2000x2500.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1820,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:6481911,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://elresenista.substack.com/i/163307758?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F48aa9f79-44a3-4f6e-a5cd-2b4413fad269_2000x2500.jpeg&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qkei!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F48aa9f79-44a3-4f6e-a5cd-2b4413fad269_2000x2500.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qkei!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F48aa9f79-44a3-4f6e-a5cd-2b4413fad269_2000x2500.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qkei!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F48aa9f79-44a3-4f6e-a5cd-2b4413fad269_2000x2500.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qkei!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F48aa9f79-44a3-4f6e-a5cd-2b4413fad269_2000x2500.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>En d&#233;crivant l&#8217;Europe d&#8217;apr&#232;s-guerre au d&#233;but du 20e si&#232;cle, l&#8217;&#233;conomiste Canadien John K. Galbraith disait que &#8220;les plus m&#251;rs et politiquement &#233;clair&#233;s&#8221; &#224; cette &#233;poque &#8220;&#233;taient de loin les socialistes&#8221;, et qu&#8217;ils &#8220;ont connu des succ&#232;s temporaires en Allemagne, en Autriche et surtout en Russie&#8221;. Aujourd&#8217;hui, en regardant vers le nouveau monde, on pourrait penser que la m&#234;me chose s&#8217;applique peut-&#234;tre &#224; la sc&#232;ne actuelle en Am&#233;rique Latine. Apr&#232;s une p&#233;riode d&#8217;environ trois d&#233;cennies qui s&#8217;est termin&#233;e dans les ann&#233;es 1990s, largement m&#233;pris&#233;e comme l&#8217;&#233;poque n&#233;olib&#233;rale, il y a eu un retour des partis de gauche dans plusieurs pays: en Chili, Venezuela, Bolivie, Mexique ou Colombie, par exemple. Et l&#224; o&#249; cela a cess&#233; d&#8217;&#234;tre le cas r&#233;cemment ou pour un court moment, comme avec Milei en Argentine ou Bolsonaro au Br&#233;sil, une grande partie de la rh&#233;torique continue de faire allusion &#224; la gauche comme point d&#8217;ancrage, ce qui ressemble plus &#224; un effet en cha&#238;ne qu&#8217;&#224; un nouveau chapitre.</p><p>Dans le cas de la Bolivie, apr&#232;s avoir &#233;t&#233; contraints de quitter le pays en 2019, les anciens chefs d&#8217;&#233;tat Evo Morales et &#193;lvaro Garc&#237;a Linera illustrent clairement cette situation. Selon leurs critiques, Morales et Garc&#237;a Linera ont &#233;t&#233; incapables, sinon ouvertement corrompus, et cela m&#234;me s&#8217;ils jurent le contraire est trop &#233;vident sur le plan &#233;conomique. Selon eux-m&#234;mes, cependant, le fait qu&#8217;ils aient &#233;t&#233; expuls&#233;s a en r&#233;alit&#233; ouvert la porte au seul ennemi qui a toujours &#233;t&#233; l&#224;: la droite n&#233;olib&#233;rale et raciste. Laquelle de ces versions est correcte? La situation d&#233;crite dans le dernier <a href="https://archive.org/details/2024-milenio-informe-milenio-46">rapport annuel</a> de la Fondation Milenio n&#8217;est bien s&#251;r pas toute l&#8217;histoire, mais il offre quelques indices.</p><p>Le rapport dit, par exemple, que la dette publique a augment&#233; depuis 2023, s&#8217;&#233;levant &#224; plus de $36 milliards en Juin 2024, ce qui repr&#233;sente 81% du PIB de la Bolivie. De ce montant, presque tout (73%) est de la dette fiscale, ce que le rapport attribue &#224; une politique de change qui d&#233;pend de plus en plus uniquement des pr&#234;ts de la banque centrale. Cela est particuli&#232;rement pr&#233;occupant parce que, depuis 2011, la Banque Centrale de Bolivie n&#8217;a eu que des pr&#233;sidents int&#233;rimaires, vraisemblablement pour s&#8217;assurer que continuer &#224; s&#8217;endetter reste une option docile. L&#8217;effet n&#233;gatif que cela a sur les r&#233;serves de devises &#233;trang&#232;res ne s&#8217;est vraiment fait sentir qu&#8217;en 2014, lorsque le boom des combustibles fossiles qui avait stimul&#233; l&#8217;&#233;conomie Bolivienne au d&#233;but des ann&#233;es 2000 a finalement pris fin. &#8220;Mais les conditions actuelles sont diff&#233;rentes&#8221;, dit le rapport. &#8220;Si cette tendance se poursuit, elle g&#233;n&#233;rera des pressions pour d&#233;pr&#233;cier le taux de change.&#8221; Et c&#8217;est ce qui se produit.</p><p>Ce message a &#233;t&#233; r&#233;p&#233;t&#233;, cri&#233; et diffus&#233; par les &#233;conomistes Boliviens aupr&#232;s du public pendant une d&#233;cennie, sans succ&#232;s. L&#8217;indiff&#233;rence des gens pourrait s&#8217;expliquer par le fait que depuis 1985 &#8212; lorsqu&#8217;une s&#233;rie de r&#233;formes appel&#233;es n&#233;olib&#233;rales ont commenc&#233; &#224; &#234;tre utilis&#233;es pour freiner une hyperinflation de plus de 10,000% &#8212; les Boliviens et Boliviennes n&#8217;ont pas eu d&#8217;exp&#233;rience directe de ce qu&#8217;est un taux de change variable, ce qui se trouve derri&#232;re une hausse soudaine des prix courants, ou &#224; quoi ressemble une dictature militaire. C&#8217;est une conversation qu&#8217;il aurait fallu avoir il y a longtemps; et la population Bolivienne est majoritairement jeune. Selon le recensement de 2012, 42% de la population avait il y a une d&#233;cennie entre 15 et 39 ans, donc la seule exp&#233;rience gouvernementale pour la plupart des Boliviens a vraiment &#233;t&#233; le MAS, dirig&#233; par Morales et Garc&#237;a Linera, sans rien &#224; quoi comparer.</p><p>Puis est venue l&#8217;expulsion de ces deux hommes en 2019, un gouvernement plus court et accident&#233; pendant la pand&#233;mie sous Jeanine &#193;&#241;ez (positionn&#233;e par succession et maintenant emprisonn&#233;e), et enfin un autre mandat avec un autre visage au MAS: l&#8217;ancien Ministre de l&#8217;&#201;conomie Luis Arce. En l&#8217;absence d&#8217;une autre alternative solide (du moins avant qu&#8217;il ne se retourne contre ses propres alli&#233;s), choisir Arce comme candidat a &#233;t&#233; ing&#233;nieux. C&#8217;est la preuve que le MAS, ou quelqu&#8217;un au sein du parti, a su reconna&#238;tre que l&#8217;argent &#233;tait le probl&#232;me national le plus pressant et que les &#233;lections g&#233;n&#233;rales allaient se d&#233;finir sur cette base. Effectivement, le plus &#8220;m&#251;r&#8221; et &#8220;&#233;clair&#233;&#8221; politiquement &#224; ce moment-l&#224; &#233;tait qui que ce soit qui a g&#233;r&#233; la campagne &#233;lectorale du MAS en 2020. Mais pourra-t-il r&#233;p&#233;ter l&#8217;exploit en Ao&#251;t 2025?</p><p>Un r&#233;cent <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20250424154926/https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F128993248%2FSpotting_borrowed_keywords_A_telling_remark_made_by_former_Bolivian_Vice_President_%25C3%2581lvaro_Garc%25C3%25ADa_Linera">article</a> de linguistique fait &#224; la Louisiana State University se concentre sur quelque chose qui pourrait &#234;tre utile pour faire une pr&#233;diction: examiner la rh&#233;torique de l&#8217;ancien vice-pr&#233;sident &#193;lvaro Garc&#237;a Linera, telle qu&#8217;elle appara&#238;t dans une conf&#233;rence qu&#8217;il a donn&#233;e en Mars dernier &#224; Buenos Aires, en Argentine. La presse locale a &#233;galement mentionn&#233; cette conf&#233;rence, soulignant une erreur &#233;vidente de la part de Garc&#237;a Linera, lorsqu&#8217;il a dit: &#8220;Qui a les dollars? Le priv&#233;. Alors je les attrape par le cou, et je dis: donne-moi tes dollars.&#8221;</p><p>Au d&#233;but, la r&#233;action &#224; ce commentaire a &#233;t&#233; telle que peu apr&#232;s m&#234;me un <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20250424191944/https://www.laizquierdadiario.com/La-charlataneria-de-Alvaro-Garcia-Linera">journal</a> Argentin de gauche, <em>La Izquierda Diario</em>, a d&#251; le qualifier de &#8220;bavardage&#8221;. Alors les journaux Boliviens avaient probablement raison de citer cette manque de finesse de Garc&#237;a Linera, bien qu&#8217;ils n&#8217;aient pas r&#233;ussi &#224; ancrer le d&#233;bat public autour de cela tr&#232;s longtemps. Le probl&#232;me est que personne n&#8217;est jamais trop enclin &#224; sympathiser avec le secteur priv&#233;; peu importe &#224; quel point la phrase du cou de Garc&#237;a Linera ait &#233;t&#233; violente. C&#8217;est le cas m&#234;me si le terme &#8220;secteur priv&#233;&#8221; fait &#233;galement r&#233;f&#233;rence aux 70% des m&#233;nages Boliviens qui recourent au travail ind&#233;pendant pour subsister, comme le dit &#224; plusieurs fois le rapport Milenio. Mais les journaux Boliviens n&#8217;ont pas mis en avant ce d&#233;tail important, et les gens en g&#233;n&#233;ral ne vont pas lire un rapport qui fait plus de cent pages. Entre-temps, la conf&#233;rence de Garc&#237;a Linera a d&#233;j&#224; &#233;t&#233; enterr&#233;e sous les titres sur la crise qui s&#8217;aggrave et les &#233;lections qui approchent.</p><p>Surtout, l&#8217;article de linguistique sugg&#232;re que Garc&#237;a Linera pourrait en fait avoir une strat&#233;gie discursive, que cette strat&#233;gie n&#8217;est probablement rien de nouveau, et pourtant qu&#8217;elle pourrait tout de m&#234;me s&#8217;av&#233;rer efficace dans les prochains mois. La raison en est en grande partie un effet d&#8217;inertie. L&#8217;article fait remarquer: &#233;tant donn&#233; que Garc&#237;a Linera est un intellectuel <em>en plus</em> d&#8217;&#234;tre un ancien vice-pr&#233;sident, il est souvent compar&#233; &#224; d&#8217;autres &#233;crivains-activistes de la tradition de gauche Bolivienne. Bien s&#251;r il ne fuit pas ce type de comparaison; il l&#8217;accueille m&#234;me. Alors son invitation &#224; donner une conf&#233;rence sur &#8220;qu&#8217;est-ce que l&#8217;&#233;tat ?&#8221; &#224; l&#8217;Universidad San Mart&#237;n &#224; Buenos Aires ne devrait pas surprendre. Si l&#8217;on &#233;coute les deux heures d&#8217;enregistrement, comme le d&#233;crit l&#8217;article, on s&#8217;aper&#231;oit que la phrase du cou est en fait apparue plusieurs fois. Apr&#232;s chacune d&#8217;entre elles, il s&#8217;av&#232;re que la foule d&#8217;&#233;tudiants Argentins n&#8217;a pas r&#233;agi avec shock, mais a plut&#244;t applaudi dans un &#233;tat proche du nirvana.</p><p>C&#8217;est seulement en Bolivie que la phrase du cou de Garc&#237;a Linera a provoqu&#233; l&#8217;indignation, et m&#234;me ici, elle n&#8217;a probablement pas affect&#233; sa base &#233;lectorale dure, &#224; savoir un autre groupe de jeunes et d&#8217;&#233;tudiants dans l&#8217;angoisse desquels l&#8217;ancien vice-pr&#233;sident semble trouver du potentiel. En fait, le mot &#8220;angoisse&#8221; est apparu un total de 20 fois pendant sa conf&#233;rence, toujours utilis&#233; dans quelque commentaire pyromane qui semblait avoir sorti directement du manuel <em>Breitbart</em> de Steven Bannon: &#8220;Les voix en col&#232;re, correctement dirig&#233;es, ont du pouvoir politique latent.&#8221;</p><p>Comme Garc&#237;a Linera le sait bien, cette angoisse transform&#233;e en col&#232;re se nourrit de crises &#233;conomiques comme celle que la Bolivie commence tout juste &#224; traverser et que le rapport Milenio d&#233;crit. Chose alarmante, vers la fin de sa conf&#233;rence applaudie Garc&#237;a Linera a dit: &#8220;&#192; l&#8217;oppression tu dois ajouter l&#8217;espoir. Quand tu n&#8217;as que de l&#8217;oppression et de la mis&#232;re, il y a toujours un &#233;chelon inf&#233;rieur de mis&#232;re. Et les gens endurent. Vous n&#8217;avez pas id&#233;e de tout ce que les gens peuvent endurer.&#8221;</p><p>Une question cl&#233;, alors, est de savoir comment se portent vraiment ces gens dont parle Garc&#237;a Linera. Et il s&#8217;av&#232;re que cette question est un &#8220;paradoxe&#8221;, selon le rapport Milenio. Bien que le taux de ch&#244;mage en Bolivie ait baiss&#233; r&#233;guli&#232;rement apr&#232;s la pand&#233;mie (de 10,8% en 2020 &#224; 3,9% en 2023), le rapport avertit que cela ne signifie pas n&#233;cessairement plus de revenus. Comme il l&#8217;explique, la d&#233;t&#233;rioration soutenue des march&#233;s du travail signifie qu&#8217;une augmentation de l&#8217;emploi &#224; son compte est en fait un sympt&#244;me que chaque jour il y a moins d&#8217;emplois formels et moins d&#8217;emplois bien r&#233;mun&#233;r&#233;s disponibles.</p><p>D&#8217;o&#249; le fait que 70% (et selon l&#8217;OIT, m&#234;me 82% d&#8217;ici 2025) des m&#233;nages Boliviens subsistent dans le &#8220;secteur priv&#233;&#8221;, gardant autant de dollars que possible sous le matelas, et loin des mains de Garc&#237;a Linera. Mais &#8220;l&#8217;effet pervers&#8221; de ce type de solutions, dit le rapport, est qu&#8217;elles conduisent &#224; l&#8217;incorporation des plus et toujours plus jeunes membres de la famille dans la force de travail, possiblement &#8220;sacrifiant des revenus futurs et des opportunit&#233;s pour sortir de la pauvret&#233;&#8221; d&#233;finitivement. L&#224; aussi, paradoxalement, il ne reste qu&#8217;&#224; donner raison &#224; Garc&#237;a Linera: &#8220;les gens endurent.&#8221; Tant que ce sera le cas, lui et ses amis vont continuer &#224; gagner par walk-over. &#182;</p><p><em>Remerciements &#224; l&#8217;&#233;conomiste Bolivien Mario Napole&#243;n Pacheco pour avoir relu cet article et v&#233;rifi&#233; qu&#8217;il ne contienne pas d&#8217;erreurs. C&#8217;est sa suggestion d&#8217;ajouter le pourcentage actualis&#233; de l&#8217;OIT.</em></p><h2>Espa&#241;ol</h2><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DnmR!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb47154-c98a-4db8-82ea-d2323d1fbac6_2000x2500.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DnmR!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb47154-c98a-4db8-82ea-d2323d1fbac6_2000x2500.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DnmR!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb47154-c98a-4db8-82ea-d2323d1fbac6_2000x2500.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DnmR!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb47154-c98a-4db8-82ea-d2323d1fbac6_2000x2500.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DnmR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb47154-c98a-4db8-82ea-d2323d1fbac6_2000x2500.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DnmR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb47154-c98a-4db8-82ea-d2323d1fbac6_2000x2500.jpeg" width="1456" height="1820" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/7fb47154-c98a-4db8-82ea-d2323d1fbac6_2000x2500.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1820,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:6488247,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://elresenista.substack.com/i/163307758?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb47154-c98a-4db8-82ea-d2323d1fbac6_2000x2500.jpeg&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DnmR!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb47154-c98a-4db8-82ea-d2323d1fbac6_2000x2500.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DnmR!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb47154-c98a-4db8-82ea-d2323d1fbac6_2000x2500.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DnmR!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb47154-c98a-4db8-82ea-d2323d1fbac6_2000x2500.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DnmR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb47154-c98a-4db8-82ea-d2323d1fbac6_2000x2500.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Al describir la Europa de posguerra a principios del siglo 20, el economista canadiense, John K. Galbraith, dec&#237;a que &#8220;los m&#225;s maduros e ilustrados pol&#237;ticamente&#8221; en aquel momento &#8220;eran de lejos los socialistas&#8221;, y que &#8220;tuvieron &#233;xitos temporales en Alemania, Austria y especialmente en Rusia&#8221;. Hoy en d&#237;a, mirando hacia el nuevo mundo, uno podr&#237;a pensar que lo mismo quiz&#225;s aplica a la escena actual en Am&#233;rica Latina. Despu&#233;s de un per&#237;odo de aproximadamente tres d&#233;cadas que termin&#243; en los a&#241;os 1990s, ampliamente despreciado como la &#233;poca neoliberal, ha habido un retorno de partidos de izquierda en varios pa&#237;ses: en Chile, Venezuela, Bolivia, M&#233;xico o Colombia, por ejemplo. Y donde esto ha dejado de ser el caso recientemente o por un corto tiempo, como con Milei en Argentina o Bolsonaro en Brasil, gran parte de la ret&#243;rica sigue aludiendo a la izquierda como punto de anclaje, cosa que m&#225;s parece un efecto en cadena que un nuevo cap&#237;tulo.</p><p>En el caso de Bolivia, despu&#233;s de verse obligados a abandonar el pa&#237;s en 2019, los exjefes de estado Evo Morales y &#193;lvaro Garc&#237;a Linera ilustran claramente esta situaci&#243;n. Seg&#250;n sus cr&#237;ticos, Morales y Garc&#237;a Linera fueron incapaces, si no abiertamente corruptos, y esto aunque ellos juren lo contrario es demasiado evidente en temas econ&#243;micos. Seg&#250;n ellos mismos, sin embargo, el hecho de que fueran expulsados en realidad ha abierto la puerta al &#250;nico enemigo que siempre estuvo all&#237;: la neoliberal y racista derecha. Cu&#225;l de estas versiones es correcta? La situaci&#243;n descrita en el &#250;ltimo <a href="https://archive.org/details/2024-milenio-informe-milenio-46">informe anual</a> de la Fundaci&#243;n Milenio por supuesto no es toda la historia, pero s&#237; ofrece algunas pistas.</p><p>El informe se&#241;ala, por ejemplo, que la deuda p&#250;blica ha aumentado desde 2023, situ&#225;ndose en m&#225;s de $36 billones a Junio de 2024, lo que representa el 81% del PIB de Bolivia. De esta cantidad, casi todo (73%) es deuda fiscal, cosa que el informe atribuye a una pol&#237;tica cambiaria que depende cada vez m&#225;s de pr&#233;stamos del banco central &#250;nicamente. Esto es preocupante en especial porque, desde 2011, el Banco Central de Bolivia ha tenido solo designados temporales al cargo de presidente, presumiblemente para asegurar que seguir endeud&#225;ndose sea una opci&#243;n d&#243;cil. El efecto negativo que esto tiene en las reservas de moneda extranjera no se sinti&#243; realmente hasta 2014, cuando el auge de los combustibles f&#243;siles que hab&#237;a impulsado la econom&#237;a Boliviana a inicios de los a&#241;os 2000 finalmente lleg&#243; a su fin. &#8220;Pero las condiciones actuales son diferentes&#8221;, dice el informe. &#8220;De continuar esta tendencia se generar&#225;n presiones para depreciar el tipo de cambio&#8221;. Y es eso lo que ha estado ocurriendo.</p><p>Este mensaje ha sido insistentemente dicho, voceado y difundido por economistas Bolivianos al p&#250;blico en general durante una d&#233;cada, sin mucho &#233;xito. La desatenci&#243;n de la gente puede deberse al hecho de que desde 1985 &#8212; cuando una serie de reformas llamadas neoliberales comenzaron a usarse para frenar una hiperinflaci&#243;n de m&#225;s del 10,000% &#8212; los Bolivianos y las Bolivianas realmente no han experimentado de primera mano lo que es un tipo de cambio variable, lo que hay detr&#225;s de un aumento repentino en los precios, o qu&#233; apariencia sol&#237;a tener una dictadura militar. Es una conversaci&#243;n que hab&#237;a que tener hace mucho; y la poblaci&#243;n boliviana es mayormente joven. Seg&#250;n el censo de 2012, el 42% de la poblaci&#243;n ten&#237;a hasta hace una d&#233;cada entre 15 y 39 a&#241;os de edad, as&#237; que en verdad la &#250;nica experiencia de gobierno para la mayor&#237;a de Bolivianos y Bolivianas ha sido el MAS, encabezado por Morales y Garc&#237;a Linera, sin nada con qu&#233; comparar.</p><p>Luego vino la expulsi&#243;n de estos dos hombres en 2019, un gobierno m&#225;s corto y accidentado durante la pandemia bajo Jeanine &#193;&#241;ez (posicionada por sucesi&#243;n y ahora presa), y finalmente otra gesti&#243;n con una otra cara en el MAS: el ex Ministro de Econom&#237;a Luis Arce. En ausencia de otra alternativa s&#243;lida (al menos hasta antes que &#233;l mismo se volviera contra los suyos), elegir a Arce como candidato fue ingenioso. Es muestra de que el MAS, o alguien dentro del partido, supo reconocer que el dinero era el problema nacional m&#225;s apremiante y que las elecciones generales iban a definirse sobre esa base. Efectivamente, el m&#225;s &#8220;maduro&#8221; e &#8220;ilustrado&#8221; pol&#237;ticamente en ese momento fue quienquiera que haya manejado la campa&#241;a electoral del MAS en 2020. Pero ser&#225; que puede repetir la haza&#241;a en agosto de 2025?</p><p>Un reciente <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20250424154926/https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F128993248%2FSpotting_borrowed_keywords_A_telling_remark_made_by_former_Bolivian_Vice_President_%25C3%2581lvaro_Garc%25C3%25ADa_Linera">art&#237;culo</a> de ling&#252;&#237;stica hecho en la Louisiana State University se centra en algo que quiz&#225; sea &#250;til para hacer un pron&#243;stico: examinar la ret&#243;rica del exvicepresidente &#193;lvaro Garc&#237;a Linera, tal c&#243;mo esta se muestra en una charla que dio el pasado Marzo en Buenos Aires, Argentina. La prensa local tambi&#233;n mencion&#243; esta charla, se&#241;alando un claro error por parte de Garc&#237;a Linera, cuando dijo: &#8220;Qui&#233;nes tienen los d&#243;lares? El privado. Entonces agarro del cuello a los privados, y digo: dame tus d&#243;lares.&#8221;</p><p>Al principio, la reacci&#243;n a este comentario fue tal que poco despu&#233;s incluso un <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20250424191944/https://www.laizquierdadiario.com/La-charlataneria-de-Alvaro-Garcia-Linera">peri&#243;dico</a> Argentino de izquierda, <em>La Izquierda Diario</em>, tuvo que tildarlo de &#8220;charlataner&#237;a&#8221;. Probablemente los peri&#243;dicos Bolivianos tuvieron raz&#243;n por tanto en citar esta torpeza de Garc&#237;a Linera, aunque no lograron anclar el debate p&#250;blico en torno a ello por mucho tiempo. El asunto es que nunca nadie est&#225; demasiado inclinado a empatizar con el sector privado; no importa cu&#225;n violenta haya sido la frase del cuello de Garc&#237;a Linera. Esto es as&#237; incluso si el t&#233;rmino &#8220;sector privado&#8221; se refiere tambi&#233;n al 70% de hogares Bolivianos que recurre al cuentapropismo para subsistir, tal como dice varias veces el informe Milenio. Pero los peri&#243;dicos bolivianos no resaltaron este importante detalle, y la gente en general no va a leer un informe que tiene m&#225;s de cien p&#225;ginas de largo. Mientras tanto, la charla de Garc&#237;a Linera ha sido enterrada ya bajo titulares sobre la crisis que empeora y las elecciones que se acercan.</p><p>Importantemente, el art&#237;culo de ling&#252;&#237;stica sugiere que Garc&#237;a Linera podr&#237;a de hecho tener una estrategia discursiva, que esta estrategia probablemente no es nada nuevo, y sin embargo que aun as&#237; esta podr&#237;a resultar efectiva en los pr&#243;ximos meses. La raz&#243;n de esto es en gran medida un efecto de inercia. El art&#237;culo hace notar: dado que Garc&#237;a Linera es un intelectual <em>adem&#225;s</em> de un exvicepresidente, a menudo se le compara con otros escritores-activistas en la tradici&#243;n izquierdista Boliviana. &#201;l por supuesto no reh&#250;ye este tipo de comparaci&#243;n; de hecho le da bienvenida. Por tanto su invitaci&#243;n a dar una charla sobre &#8220;&#191;qu&#233; es el estado?&#8221; en la Universidad San Mart&#237;n, en Buenos Aires, no deber&#237;a sorprender. Si se escuchan las dos horas de grabaci&#243;n, como se describe en el art&#237;culo, se ver&#225; que la frase del cuello en realidad apareci&#243; varias veces. Despu&#233;s de cada una, resulta que el p&#250;blico de universitarios Argentinos no reaccion&#243; con shock, sino que aplaud&#237;a en un estado casi de nirvana.</p><p>Fue solo en Bolivia donde la frase del cuello de Garc&#237;a Linera caus&#243; indignaci&#243;n, e incluso aqu&#237;, probablemente no afect&#243; a su base electoral dura, a saber otro grupo de j&#243;venes y universitarios en cuya angustia el exvicepresidente parece encontrar potencial. De hecho, la palabra &#8220;angustia&#8221; apareci&#243; un total de 20 veces durante su charla, siempre usada en alg&#250;n comentario pir&#243;mano que parec&#237;a salido directamente del manual <em>Breitbart </em>de Steven Bannon: &#8220;Las voces enojadas, adecuadamente dirigidas, tienen poder pol&#237;tico latente.&#8221;</p><p>Como Garc&#237;a Linera bien sabe, esta angustia convertida en enojo se alimenta de crisis econ&#243;micas como la que Bolivia est&#225; tan solo empezando a atravesar y el informe Milenio describe. Cosa alarmante, hacia el final de su aplaudida charla, Garc&#237;a Linera dijo: &#8220;A la opresi&#243;n tienes que sumarle la esperanza. Cuando solamente tienes pura opresi&#243;n y miseria, siempre hay un escal&#243;n m&#225;s bajo de la miseria. Y la gente aguanta. No saben la capacidad de resistencia que tiene la gente.&#8221;</p><p>Una pregunta clave, entonces, es c&#243;mo se encuentra en verdad esa gente de la que habla Garc&#237;a Linera. Y resulta que esta pregunta es una &#8220;paradoja&#8221;, seg&#250;n el informe Milenio. Aunque la tasa de desempleo en Bolivia ha ca&#237;do consistentemente despu&#233;s de la pandemia (del 10.8% en 2020 al 3.9% en 2023), el informe advierte que esto no necesariamente significa m&#225;s ganancias. Como este explica, el deterioro sostenido de los mercados laborales Bolivianos significa que un aumento en el cuentapropismo es en realidad un s&#237;ntoma de que cada d&#237;a hay menos empleos formales y menos empleos bien remunerados disponibles.</p><p>De ah&#237; el hecho de que el 70% (y seg&#250;n la OIT, para 2025 incluso el 82%) de los hogares Bolivianos est&#233; subsistiendo en el &#8220;sector privado&#8221;, guardando tantos d&#243;lares como puede bajo el colch&#243;n, y lejos de las manos de Garc&#237;a Linera. Pero el &#8220;efecto perverso&#8221; de este tipo de soluciones, dice el informe, es que llevan a la incorporaci&#243;n de m&#225;s y cada vez m&#225;s j&#243;venes miembros de la familia a la fuerza laboral, posiblemente &#8220;sacrificando ingresos futuros y oportunidades para salir de la pobreza&#8221; de forma definitiva. En esto tambi&#233;n, parad&#243;jicamente, no queda otro remedio que darle raz&#243;n a Garc&#237;a Linera: &#8220;la gente aguanta.&#8221; Mientras esto sea as&#237;, &#233;l y sus amigos van a seguir ganando por walk-over. &#182;</p><p><em>Agradecimientos al economista Boliviano Mario Napole&#243;n Pacheco por revisar este art&#237;culo y verificar que no tenga errores. Fue sugerencia suya a&#241;adir el porcentaje actualizado de la OIT.</em></p><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://erblog.net/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Thanks for reading El Rese&#241;ista! Subscribe for free to receive new posts and support my work.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Globalists: The end of empire and the birth of neoliberalism - by Quinn Slobodian]]></title><description><![CDATA[#BookReview #Neoliberalism]]></description><link>https://erblog.net/p/globalists-the-end-of-empire-and</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://erblog.net/p/globalists-the-end-of-empire-and</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[ER]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Wed, 02 Nov 2022 15:20:50 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lIoU!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6823cc6-9a88-4df9-be5d-851537c9d698_2000x2000.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<blockquote><h4>This review can be read in:</h4><p><em>English</em></p><p><em>Fran&#231;ais</em></p><p><em>Espa&#241;ol</em></p></blockquote><h1>English</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lIoU!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6823cc6-9a88-4df9-be5d-851537c9d698_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lIoU!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6823cc6-9a88-4df9-be5d-851537c9d698_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lIoU!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6823cc6-9a88-4df9-be5d-851537c9d698_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lIoU!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6823cc6-9a88-4df9-be5d-851537c9d698_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lIoU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6823cc6-9a88-4df9-be5d-851537c9d698_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lIoU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6823cc6-9a88-4df9-be5d-851537c9d698_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d6823cc6-9a88-4df9-be5d-851537c9d698_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:196762,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lIoU!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6823cc6-9a88-4df9-be5d-851537c9d698_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lIoU!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6823cc6-9a88-4df9-be5d-851537c9d698_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lIoU!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6823cc6-9a88-4df9-be5d-851537c9d698_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lIoU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6823cc6-9a88-4df9-be5d-851537c9d698_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>With this review, I close a three-part series on neoliberalism that is makeshift at best but nonetheless has proven useful. That this word was weaponized by Bolivian marxists makes a lot more sense now, although they ought to dig deeper next time because it turns out they too are misinformed. Bolivia&#8217;s understanding of neoliberalism may well be a monopoly at present, but it is a weak monopoly; the kind that arises from a lack of ideas in competition. That is, I think, a first insight that may be drawn from reviewing <a href="https://elresenista.substack.com/p/mario-napoleon-pachecos-growth-policies">Pacheco</a>, <a href="https://elresenista.substack.com/p/a-brief-history-of-neoliberalism">Harvey</a> and now Slobodian (our entry into a literature that is of course much larger). However, before discussing neoliberalism, marxism or any other ism, it is necessary to go back to a more basic conversation. Too much violence is radically changing the order of priorities and everyone should respond accordingly. If and when we get out of this situation, the rules of the game are bound to emerge slowly, but we&#8217;re not at that stage yet, unfortunately. The following therefore is my review of a book whose subject appears inappropriate in this context: Slobodian&#8217;s research on the history of an idea that Bolivia often despises and even more often is unfamiliar with. In any case &#8212; and it almost sounds cruel to say this &#8212; the good thing of learning new ideas, be it this or any other, is they provide a kind of buffer or margin of error: if an idea ends up being nonsense, it can always die a figurative death and save someone from getting killed in the street for no good reason.</p><h4>First a little overview</h4><p><em>Globalists: The end of empire and the birth of neoliberalism </em>is an intellectual history covering the evolution of neoliberal ideology roughly from 1920 to 1990. The book has seven chapters and a sizable introduction and conclusion. The introduction briefly explains how neoliberalism was brought to the mainstream and stigmatized almost at once; then Slobodian promises that his &#8220;narrative&#8221; will &#8220;correct&#8221; this &#8220;storyline&#8221;. The rest moves slowly forward in time showing how this ideology sprung out of its predecessor, classical liberalism, into the 20th century. The first two chapters tell of early neoliberal studies on the business cycle and regulation of borders, taxes and wages for a post-imperial world; chapters three and four explain the subsequent ideas for &#8220;supranational federation&#8221; that gave birth to institutions like the IMF, the World Bank and the EEC (a forerunner to the EU); chapters five to seven discuss the obstacles that all these ideas faced in a world with an ever-growing number of sovereign countries. The conclusion returns to the current neoliberal stigma without deciding whether or not it is justified, meaning the book does straighten facts and even takes sides, but in the end vindicates no one.</p><p>Slobodian was born in Canada and studied history in the US, first at Lewis &amp; Clark College, in Portland, and later at NYU, where he obtained his PhD in 2008. From that year to the present, he taught history at Wellesley College, Massachusetts. He started as an assistant professor and currently holds a senior position teaching German history, his field of expertise. Since 2020, he has been co-editor of the academic journal <em>Contemporary European History</em> and last year he joined Chatham House, a London-based think-tank specializing on international affairs. His personal <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217205223/https://www.quinnslobodian.com/">website</a> lists over five dozen academic papers, book chapters and occasional articles published in such renowned periodicals as <em>The Guardian</em>, <em>The New York Times</em> or <em>The Nation</em>, showing that although still a young historian he enjoys a good reputation already. Also, like many intellectuals do nowadays, Slobodian tweets copiously, often in a frisky tone. A year ago he called David Harvey &#8220;truly the godfather of millennial marxism&#8221;. In his mid-40s, he has so far edited two books and written another three, the second of which I review here in its first edition, from 2018.</p><h4>The book in question</h4><p>Slobodian&#8217;s thesis is that &#8220;for better or for worse&#8221; neoliberals thought modern democracy, a quintessentially post-imperial thing, was as much an achievement as an untamable hurricane. He says this unusual concern for the patchy aspects of democracy first arose in a group called Geneva School (1920-30s) &#8212; initially comprising <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek">Hayek</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises">Mises</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Haberler">Haberler</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke">R&#246;pke</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionel_Robbins">Robbins</a> &#8212; which still by the 1980s was little known even as individual members rose to prominence. For these men, the &#8220;polestar&#8221; of the first wave of globalization (1870-1914) had been the British Empire, but after WWI and the Great Depression a new order was needed. And far from being reneged, the former British pillars of &#8220;free trade&#8221; and &#8220;sound money&#8221; had to be preserved in it. This time around, again by &#8220;thinking in orders&#8221;, except with a global scope, which was made possible by means of intellectual mishmash. The word &#8220;order&#8221; itself came from German ordoliberalism in this case and, Slobodian argues, was combined with an idea for &#8220;double government&#8221; that was drawn from the &#8220;shards&#8221; of yet another empire.</p><p>Within the &#8220;Genevan pedigree&#8221;, as Slobodian calls it, Austrian economists had attended the demise of the Habsburgs (1914-18) and so had first-hand memories of the loss of imperial cohesion. Moreover, in studying the &#8220;shards&#8221;, they came across a &#8220;separation of economics and politics&#8221; that Slobodian thinks is often &#8220;overlooked&#8221;. Well before any Geneva meeting (1930-40s), it was these things, he says, that led neoliberals to seek solutions for their &#8220;prototypical case of small state in the storms of globalization&#8221;. In short, they prescribed assembling a network of nation-states, each with a &#8220;shrunken&#8221; yet &#8220;strong&#8221; government and above all an economic policy board that was &#8220;independent&#8221;. Once this machinery was up and running, the job was assuring that tariffs didn&#8217;t obstruct capital flight, that labor was hired where lower wages were found and trade unions (European ones, back then) didn&#8217;t metastasize into sectional selfishness. Like it or not, the lifeblood of the network was &#8220;economic interdependence&#8221;; its biggest foe, &#8220;economic nationalism&#8221;. Or that is, at least, the earlier worldview Slobodian somewhat salvages and finds to be &#8220;coherent&#8221;.</p><p>He also highlights just how cosmopolitan this period of neoliberal brainstorming was. And to what extent it revolved, although not exclusively, around the &#8220;Anglo-American relationship&#8221;. Hayek, he says, picked up &#8220;the idea of business cycle research&#8221; from a visit to the US (1926), and excitedly told his colleagues about it as he closed funding deals for similar research in Europe. That sparked a major bond with US philanthropic money (along with its interests). At the same time, their craft being new and cerebral, Slobodian says that economists quickly acquired a &#8220;special prestige&#8221;. The average person saw them as agents of &#8220;a space beyond politics&#8221;, supposedly free from its contamination. Hence their embodiment of what he calls the &#8220;barometer metaphor&#8221;, whose ultimate merit, cerebral reputation notwithstanding, was having started a new tradition of open, more rigorous accounting. This, he notes, both across the public and private sector, and in stark contrast to classical liberalism. Yet to him the shift implies not so much a worshiping of numbers, but facing a &#8220;basic&#8221;, even &#8220;aesthetic&#8221; question.</p><p>Slobodian quotes Haberler to elaborate on this last bit, who described the market, he says, as a &#8220;latticework of individual economic acts&#8221;: a social thing, put in terms of another metaphor. Slobodian devotes many pages to say that neoliberals rejected the laissez-faire &#8220;myth&#8221; and were instead focused on designing an &#8220;institutional framework&#8221; to regulate such &#8220;latticework&#8221; markets. But he says the gist of this metaphor is complexity, the fact that no government, however adept and oversized, can ever hope to grasp the complexity of markets. Because of this, the neoliberal view, as stated by Hayek, was that it was ludicrous trying to regulate fully, but that it was vital to do so strategically. Therein the actual disagreement neoliberals had with marxists. And why after WWII another <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217214129/https://www.spiegel.de/fotostrecke/wie-alfred-mueller-armack-die-soziale-marktwirtschaft-erfand-fotostrecke-151043.html?sara_ref=re-xx-cp-sh">handful</a> of last names in German &#8212; i.a. Groeben, Mestm&#228;cker, Eucken, Bh&#246;m, M&#252;ller-Armack &#8212; took a step &#8220;from the economic to the legal&#8221;.</p><p>With law (i.e. order, remember), &#8220;fiscal megalomania&#8221; was opposed in pursuit of a &#8220;model of neoliberal federation&#8221;. Slobodian says the original stronghold for all this was the League of Nations, but unfortunately the UN, its successor, came under the control of rivals &#8212; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Kaldor">Kaldor</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal">Myrdal</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Balogh%2C_Baron_Balogh">Balogh</a> &#8212; so neoliberals had to go elsewhere. The IMF and the World Bank were created in 1944, the GATT in 1947. These institutions, he says, were meant to put economic regulation out of the reach of individual countries, setting the baseline for a &#8220;European Economic Community&#8221; (EEC), as it was called and made official with the Treaty of Rome, a decade later. The underlying criterion (a postwar lesson, really) was the need to &#8220;relinquish sovereignty&#8221; for a common greater good. But, Slobodian adds, not everyone in Europe was open to this, and neither were poorer countries (ex colonies, mostly), which now also attended the UN General Assembly.</p><p>Slobodian gives many examples of the diplomatic battles this assembly became a vehicle for. He says that in 1952, with a proposal from Uruguay and Bolivia, the assembly &#8220;passed its first resolution of many&#8221; tying national sovereignty to the ownership of a territory&#8217;s natural wealth. France, in 1957, made the inclusion of its colonies a condition to signing the Treaty of Rome: a similar stance for its own version of what it was that it owned. Slobodian says that claims like these pitted rich and poor countries against each other, but neither was in accordance with &#8220;the normative neoliberal model&#8221;. Contrary to the UN, he says, neoliberals opposed egalitarian demands for being &#8220;inclusionary&#8221; as well as &#8220;exclusionary&#8221;, depending on which side pulled the hardest. The solution they proposed was introducing &#8220;a formal equality&#8221; which, backed by a supranational authority, could override &#8220;historically determined real inequality&#8221;. But as with the EEC, acceptance was mixed. Many more countries were independent now, and &#8220;for better or for worse&#8221;, having their vote heard mattered more than being a part of any network.</p><h4>My commentary</h4><p>Slobodian does a good job of showing the eye-opening importance of any &#8220;intellectual prehistory&#8221;, not just that of neoliberalism. He not only goes out of his way to disclose various murky quarrels amongst neoliberal ranks, but his list of sources is packed with archival material. In fact, those may be the most notable qualities of his book: the research is thorough and without censorship. As a result, any notion of wholesome unity quickly gives way to disagreement and &#8220;the push and pull&#8221; of contingency, which is a lot more realistic. Because that&#8217;s what is at stake here, he sort of suggests towards the end, when discussing Hayek&#8217;s later work: reality, which is ever-changing. If one were to concede that neoliberals were right, he says, free trade and free prices matter because they are &#8220;a kind of machinery for registering change&#8221;. And since money is neither gold nor labor, but a legal contract, it is of the utmost importance to have transparency when recording that change.</p><p>Slobodian speaks of a worldwide phenomenon, however, and he underscores how much &#8220;the question of scale&#8221; changes everything. That&#8217;s actually why neoliberals clashed the most, he says. After an avalanche of fresh nationalisms from poor countries in the 1960s, R&#246;pke felt &#8220;anxiety about shifts in the global racial order&#8221; and even became an Apartheid advocate. Others rushed to express publicly they didn&#8217;t agree with him. Still they thought a &#8220;weighted franchise&#8221;, based on how much a citizen pays in taxes, say, would help prevent the vengeful use of electoral majorities. From a strictly Bolivian standpoint, it seems difficult to empathize with these emotions of white people, let alone think they may carry a &#8220;critique of electoral democracy&#8221; in them. But Bolivia is part of a larger whole and we also don&#8217;t think about that very often. Instead, it is enough for us to believe that we&#8217;re having a smarter debate and painting the South American map according to the latest electoral results. We even paint our morale in colors and mourn a death more or less depending on which side pulls the hardest. With such a meek attitude, it cannot honestly be said that we spurn our own wannabe dictators. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h1>Fran&#231;ais</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!23S_!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6daf7910-ce31-41a9-8e11-4fe69ee2c6a7_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!23S_!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6daf7910-ce31-41a9-8e11-4fe69ee2c6a7_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!23S_!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6daf7910-ce31-41a9-8e11-4fe69ee2c6a7_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!23S_!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6daf7910-ce31-41a9-8e11-4fe69ee2c6a7_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!23S_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6daf7910-ce31-41a9-8e11-4fe69ee2c6a7_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!23S_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6daf7910-ce31-41a9-8e11-4fe69ee2c6a7_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/6daf7910-ce31-41a9-8e11-4fe69ee2c6a7_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:217386,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!23S_!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6daf7910-ce31-41a9-8e11-4fe69ee2c6a7_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!23S_!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6daf7910-ce31-41a9-8e11-4fe69ee2c6a7_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!23S_!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6daf7910-ce31-41a9-8e11-4fe69ee2c6a7_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!23S_!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6daf7910-ce31-41a9-8e11-4fe69ee2c6a7_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Avec ce revue, je termine une s&#233;rie en trois parties sur le n&#233;olib&#233;ralisme qui est au mieux improvis&#233;e mais s&#8217;est n&#233;anmoins av&#233;r&#233; utile. Que ce mot ait &#233;t&#233; utilis&#233; comme une arme par marxistes Boliviens a beaucoup plus de sens maintenant, m&#234;me s&#8217;ils devraient creuser davantage la prochaine fois car il s&#8217;av&#232;re qu&#8217;ils sont eux aussi mal inform&#233;s. La compr&#233;hension du n&#233;olib&#233;ralisme en Bolivie est peut-&#234;tre un monopole &#224; l&#8217;heure actuelle, mais il s&#8217;agit d&#8217;un monopole faible; celui qui r&#233;sulte d&#8217;un manque d&#8217;id&#233;es en comp&#233;tition. C&#8217;est, je pense, un premier aper&#231;u que l&#8217;on peut tirer de la mise en revue de <a href="https://elresenista.substack.com/p/mario-napoleon-pachecos-growth-policies">Pacheco</a>, <a href="https://elresenista.substack.com/p/a-brief-history-of-neoliberalism">Harvey</a> et maintenant Slobodian (notre entr&#233;e dans une litt&#233;rature qui est bien s&#251;r beaucoup plus grande). Cependant, avant de discuter du n&#233;olib&#233;ralisme, du marxisme ou de tout autre isme, il est n&#233;cessaire de revenir &#224; une conversation plus basique. Trop de violence est en train de changer radicalement l&#8217;ordre des priorit&#233;s et chacun doit r&#233;agir en cons&#233;quence. Si nous r&#233;ussissons &#224; sortir de cette situation, les r&#232;gles du jeu &#233;mergeront sans doute lentement, mais nous ne sommes pas encore &#224; ce stade, malhereusement. Ce qui suit est donc ma revue d&#8217;un livre dont le sujet semble inappropri&#233; dans ce contexte: la recherche de Slobodian sur l&#8217;histoire d&#8217;une id&#233;e que la Bolivie m&#233;prise souvent et plus souvent encore ne conna&#238;t pas. Quand m&#234;me &#8212; et cela sonne presque cruel de le dire &#8212; le bon c&#244;t&#233; d&#8217;apprendre de nouvelles id&#233;es, que ce soit cela ou une autre, est qu&#8217;elles offrent une sorte de tampon ou marge d&#8217;erreur: si une id&#233;e finit par &#234;tre stupide, elle peut en tout cas mourir une mort figur&#233;e et sauver quelqu&#8217;un de se faire tuer dans la rue sans raison valable.</p><h4>D&#8217;abord un bref r&#233;sum&#233;</h4><p><em>Globalistes: La fin de l&#8217;empire et la naissance du n&#233;olib&#233;ralisme</em> est une histoire intellectuelle qui couvre l&#8217;&#233;volution de l&#8217;id&#233;ologie n&#233;olib&#233;rale approximativement de 1920 &#224; 1990. Le livre a sept chapitres ainsi qu&#8217;une introduction et une conclusion grandes. L&#8217;introduction explique bri&#232;vement comment le n&#233;olib&#233;ralisme est devenu c&#233;l&#232;bre et a &#233;t&#233; stigmatis&#233; presque en m&#234;me temps; puis Slobodian promet que son &#8220;r&#233;cit&#8221; va &#8220;corriger&#8221; cette &#8220;trame&#8221;. Le reste avance lentement dans le temps montrant comment cette id&#233;ologie est n&#233; de son pr&#233;d&#233;cesseur, le lib&#233;ralisme classique, vers le 20e si&#232;cle. Les deux premiers chapitres relatent des premi&#232;res &#233;tudes n&#233;olib&#233;rales sur le cycle commerciale et de la r&#233;gulation des fronti&#232;res, imp&#244;ts et salaires dans un monde post-imp&#233;rial; les chapitres trois et quatre expliquent les id&#233;es ult&#233;rieures de &#8220;f&#233;d&#233;ration supranationale&#8221; qui ont donn&#233; naissance &#224; des institutions telles que le FMI, la Banque Mondiale et la CEE (pr&#233;curseur de l&#8217;UE); les chapitres cinq &#224; sept discutent les obstacles que toutes ces id&#233;es on rencontr&#233;s dans un monde comptant un nombre toujours croissant de pays souverains. La conclusion revient sur la stigmatisation n&#233;olib&#233;rale actuelle sans d&#233;cider si elle est justifi&#233;e ou non, ce qui signifie que le livre redresse les faits et prend m&#234;me parti, mais au final ne donne raison &#224; personne.</p><p>Slobodian est n&#233; au Canada et a &#233;tudi&#233; histoire aux &#201;tats-Unis, d&#8217;abord au Lewis &amp; Clark College, &#224; Portland, et puis &#224; la NYU, o&#249; il a obtenu son doctorat en 2008. De cette ann&#233;e-l&#224; &#224; aujourd&#8217;hui, il a enseign&#233; histoire au Wellesley College, Massachusetts. Il a commenc&#233; comme professeur assistant et occupe actuellement un poste de direction en enseignant histoire Allemande, son domaine d&#8217;expertise. Depuis 2020, il a &#233;t&#233; co-&#233;diteur de la revue acad&#233;mique <em>Contemporary European History</em> et l&#8217;an dernier a rejoint Chatham House, un think-tank bas&#233; &#224; Londres sp&#233;cialis&#233; sur affaires internationales. Son <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217205223/https://www.quinnslobodian.com/">site web</a> personnel &#233;num&#232;re plus de cinq douzaines d&#8217;articles universitaires, chapitres de livres et articles occasionnels publi&#233;s dans des journaux aussi renomm&#233;s que <em>The Guardian</em>, <em>The New York Times</em> ou <em>The Nation</em>, montrant que bien qu&#8217;&#233;tant encore un jeune historien il jouit d&#233;j&#224; d&#8217;une bonne r&#233;putation. En outre, comme beaucoup d&#8217;intellectuels de nos jours, Slobodian tweete copieusement, souvent sur un ton moqueur &#8212; il y a un an il a appel&#233; David Harvey le &#8220;v&#233;ritable parrain du marxisme millennial&#8221;. Au milieu de la quarantaine, il a jusqu&#8217;&#224; pr&#233;sent &#233;dit&#233; deux livres et en a &#233;crit trois autres, dont le deuxi&#232;me je mis en revue ici dans sa premi&#232;re &#233;dition, de 2018.</p><h4>Le livre en question</h4><p>La th&#232;se de Slobodian est que &#8220;pour le meilleur ou pour le pire&#8221; les n&#233;olib&#233;raux pensaient que la d&#233;mocratie moderne, un chose post-imp&#233;riale par excellence, &#233;tait autant un acquis qu&#8217;un ouragan indomptable. Il dit que cette pr&#233;occupation insolite pour les d&#233;g&#226;ts de la d&#233;mocratie est apparu d&#8217;abord dans un groupe appel&#233; &#201;cole de Gen&#232;ve (1920-30s) &#8212; comprenant initialement <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek">Hayek</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises">Mises</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Haberler">Haberler</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke">R&#246;pke</a> et <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionel_Robbins">Robbins</a> &#8212; qui m&#234;me dans les ann&#233;es 1980s &#233;tait encore peu connu m&#234;me si quelques membres sont devenus c&#233;l&#232;bres. Pour ces hommes, &#8220;l&#8217;&#233;toile polaire&#8221; de la premi&#232;re vague de mondialisation (1870-1914) avait &#233;t&#233; l&#8217;Empire Britannique, mais apr&#232;s la Premi&#232;re Guerre Mondiale et la Grande D&#233;pression un nouvel ordre &#233;tait n&#233;cessaire. Et loin d&#8217;&#234;tre reni&#233;s, les anciens piliers Britanniques du &#8220;libre-&#233;change&#8221; et &#8220;monnaie forte&#8221; devaient y &#234;tre pr&#233;serv&#233;s. Cette fois encore, en &#8220;termes d&#8217;ordres&#8221;, mais avec une vision globale, ce qui est devenu possible gr&#226;ce &#224; un m&#233;li-m&#233;lo intellectuel. Le mot &#8220;ordre&#8221; lui-m&#234;me est venu de l&#8217;ordolib&#233;ralisme Allemand dans ce cas et, soutient Slobodian, a &#233;t&#233; combin&#233; avec une id&#233;e de &#8220;double gouvernement&#8221; tir&#233;e des &#8220;d&#233;bris&#8221; d&#8217;un autre empire.</p><p>Dans le &#8220;pedigree Genevois&#8221;, comme l&#8217;appelle Slobodian, les &#233;conomistes Autrichiens avaient assist&#233; &#224; la chute des Habsbourg (1914-18) et avaient donc un souvenir de premi&#232;re main de la perte de coh&#233;sion imp&#233;riale. De plus, en &#233;tudiant les &#8220;d&#233;bris&#8221;, ils sont tomb&#233;s sur une &#8220;s&#233;paration de &#233;conomie et politique&#8221; qui Slobodian pense qu&#8217;est souvent &#8220;ignor&#233;e&#8221;. Bien avant toute r&#233;union en Gen&#232;ve (1930-40s), c&#8217;&#233;tait ces choses, dit-il, qui ont conduits les n&#233;olib&#233;raux &#224; chercher des solutions pour leur &#8220;cas prototypique de petit &#233;tat dans les temp&#234;tes de la globalisation&#8221;. En bref, ils ont prescrit l&#8217;assemblage d&#8217;un r&#233;seau d&#8217;&#233;tats-nations, chacun dot&#233; d&#8217;un gouvernement &#8220;r&#233;tr&#233;ci&#8221; mais &#8220;fort&#8221; et surtout d&#8217;un conseil de politique &#233;conomique &#8220;ind&#233;pendant&#8221;. Une fois que cette machinerie &#233;tait en marche, la t&#226;che s&#8217;agissait de s&#8217;assurer que les droits de douane n&#8217;entrave pas la fuite des capitaux, que la main-d&#8217;&#339;uvre soit embauch&#233;e l&#224; o&#249; salaires &#233;taient les plus bas et que les syndicats (Europ&#233;ens, &#224; l&#8217;&#233;poque) ne fassent pas m&#233;tastase d&#8217;&#233;go&#239;sme sectionnel. Bon gr&#233; mal gr&#233;, le sang vital du r&#233;seau &#233;tait &#8220;l&#8217;interd&#233;pendance &#233;conomique&#8221;; son plus grand ennemi, le &#8220;nationalisme &#233;conomique&#8221;. C&#8217;est, du moins, la vision du monde ant&#233;rieure que Slobodian r&#233;cup&#232;re quelque peu et affirme trouver &#8220;coh&#233;rente&#8221;.</p><p>Il souligne aussi combien c&#8217;&#233;tait cosmopolite cette p&#233;riode de remue-m&#233;ninge n&#233;olib&#233;ral. Et &#224; quel point elle tournait, bien que pas exclusivement, autour de la &#8220;relation Anglo-Am&#233;ricaine&#8221;. Hayek, dit-il, a pris &#8220;l&#8217;id&#233;e de la recherche sur le cycle commerciale&#8221; lors d&#8217;une visite aux &#201;tats-Unis (1926), et en a parl&#233; avec enthousiasme &#224; ses coll&#232;gues alors qu&#8217;il concluait des accords de financement pour des recherches similaires en Europe. Cela a d&#233;clench&#233; un lien majeur avec d&#8217;argent philanthropique &#201;tats-Unien (ainsi qu&#8217;avec ses int&#233;r&#234;ts). En m&#234;me temps, leur m&#233;tier &#233;tant nouveau et c&#233;r&#233;bral, Slobodian dit que les &#233;conomistes ont rapidement acquis un &#8220;prestige sp&#233;cial&#8221;. La personne moyenne les voyait comme agents d&#8217;un &#8220;espace au-del&#224; de la politique&#8221;, suppos&#233; exempt de sa contamination. D&#8217;o&#249; leur incarnation de ce qu&#8217;il appelle la &#8220;m&#233;taphore du barom&#232;tre&#8221;, dont le m&#233;rite ultime, malgr&#233; la r&#233;putation c&#233;r&#233;brale, &#233;tait d&#8217;avoir lanc&#233; une nouvelle tradition de comptabilit&#233; ouverte et plus rigoureuse. Ceci, note-t-il, tant dans le secteur public que dans le priv&#233;, et en contraste frappant avec le lib&#233;ralisme classique. N&#233;anmoins pour lui ce changement n&#8217;implique pas tant un culte des chiffres, mais affronter une question &#8220;basique&#8221;, m&#234;me &#8220;esth&#233;tique&#8221;.</p><p>Slobodian cite Haberler pour &#233;laborer sur ce dernier point, qui d&#233;crivait le march&#233;, dit-il, comme un &#8220;treillis d&#8217;actes &#233;conomiques individuels&#8221;: une chose sociale, mise en termes d&#8217;autre m&#233;taphore. Slobodian d&#233;die de nombreuses pages &#224; dire que les n&#233;olib&#233;raux rejetaient le &#8220;mythe&#8221; du laissez-faire et &#233;taient plut&#244;t concentr&#233;s sur dessiner un &#8220;cadre institutionnel&#8221; pour r&#233;guler ces march&#233;s &#8220;treillis&#8221;. Mais il dit que le noyau de cette m&#233;taphore est la complexit&#233;, le fait qu&#8217;aucun gouvernement, aussi adepte et surdimensionn&#233; soit-il, ne peut esp&#233;rer saisir la complexit&#233; des march&#233;s. Pour cette raison, le point de vue n&#233;olib&#233;ral, tel qu&#8217;&#233;nonc&#233; par Hayek, &#233;tait qu&#8217;il &#233;tait ridicule d&#8217;essayer de r&#233;guler pleinement, mais qu&#8217;il &#233;tait vital de le faire strat&#233;giquement. C&#8217;est l&#224; que se situe le v&#233;ritable d&#233;saccord des n&#233;olib&#233;raux avec les marxistes. Et pourquoi apr&#232;s la Seconde Guerre Mondiale une autre <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217214129/https://www.spiegel.de/fotostrecke/wie-alfred-mueller-armack-die-soziale-marktwirtschaft-erfand-fotostrecke-151043.html?sara_ref=re-xx-cp-sh">poign&#233;e</a> de noms en Allemand &#8212; entre autres Groeben, Mestm&#228;cker, Eucken, Bh&#246;m, M&#252;ller-Armack &#8212; ont fait un pas &#8220;de l&#8217;&#233;conomique au l&#233;gal&#8221;.</p><p>Avec la loi (c&#8217;est-&#224;-dire l&#8217;ordre, rappelez-vous), on s&#8217;est oppos&#233; &#224; la &#8220;m&#233;galomanie fiscale&#8221; en poursuivant un &#8220;mod&#232;le de f&#233;d&#233;ration n&#233;olib&#233;rale&#8221;. Slobodian dit que le bastion original de tout cela &#233;tait la Ligue des Nations, mais malheureusement l&#8217;ONU, son successeur, est pass&#233; sous le contr&#244;le de rivaux &#8212; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Kaldor">Kaldor</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal">Myrdal</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Balogh%2C_Baron_Balogh">Balogh</a> &#8212; de sorte que les n&#233;olib&#233;raux ont d&#251; aller ailleurs. Le FMI et la Banque Mondiale ont &#233;t&#233; cr&#233;&#233;s en 1944, le GATT en 1947. Ces institutions, dit-il, devaient mettre la r&#233;gulation &#233;conomique hors de port&#233;e des pays individuels, jetant ainsi les bases d&#8217;une &#8220;Communaut&#233; &#201;conomique Europ&#233;enne&#8221; (CEE), comme on l&#8217;appelait et l&#8217;officialisait par le Trait&#233; de Rome, une d&#233;cennie plus tard. Le crit&#232;re sous-jacent (une le&#231;on d&#8217;apr&#232;s-guerre, en fait) &#233;tait la n&#233;cessit&#233; de &#8220;renoncer &#224; la souverainet&#233;&#8221; pour un plus grand bien commun. Mais, ajoute Slobodian, tout le monde en Europe n&#8217;&#233;tait pas ouvert &#224; &#231;a, pas plus que des pays plus pauvres (anciennes colonies, la plupart), qui participaient d&#233;sormais aussi &#224; l&#8217;Assembl&#233;e G&#233;n&#233;rale de l&#8217;ONU.</p><p>Slobodian donne de nombreux exemples des batailles diplomatiques pour lesquelles cette assembl&#233;e est devenu un v&#233;hicule. Il dit qu&#8217;en 1952, sur proposition de l&#8217;Uruguay et la Bolivie, l&#8217;assembl&#233;e &#8220;a adopt&#233; sa premi&#232;re r&#233;solution parmi tant d&#8217;autres&#8221; liant la souverainet&#233; nationale &#224; la propri&#233;t&#233; des richesses naturelles d&#8217;un territoire. La France, en 1957, a fait de l&#8217;inclusion de ses colonies une condition &#224; la signature du Trait&#233; de Rome: une position similaire pour sa propre version de ce qui lui appartenait. Slobodian dit que des all&#233;gations comme celles-ci ont oppos&#233; les pays riches et pauvres, mais aucune s&#8217;ajustait au &#8220;mod&#232;le normatif n&#233;olib&#233;ral&#8221;. Contrairement &#224; l&#8217;ONU, dit-il, les n&#233;olib&#233;raux s&#8217;opposaient aux demandes &#233;galitaires parce qu&#8217;elles &#233;taient &#224; la fois &#8220;inclusives&#8221; et &#8220;exclusives&#8221;, selon quel c&#244;t&#233; tirait le plus fort. La solution qu&#8217;ils proposaient &#233;tait d&#8217;introduire &#8220;une &#233;galit&#233; formelle&#8221; qui, soutenue par une autorit&#233; supranationale, puisse outrepasser &#8220;l&#8217;in&#233;galit&#233; r&#233;elle historiquement d&#233;termin&#233;e&#8221;. Mais comme pour la CEE, l&#8217;acceptation &#233;tait in&#233;gale. Beaucoup plus de pays &#233;taient d&#233;sormais ind&#233;pendants, et &#8220;pour le meilleur ou pour le pire&#8221;, faire entendre leur vote importait plus que de faire partie d&#8217;un quelconque r&#233;seau.</p><h4>Mon commentaire</h4><p>Slobodian montre bien l&#8217;importance r&#233;v&#233;latrice de toute &#8220;pr&#233;histoire intellectuelle&#8221;, pas seulement celle du n&#233;olib&#233;ralisme. Non seulement il s&#8217;efforce de r&#233;v&#233;ler diverses querelles obscures parmi les rangs n&#233;olib&#233;raux, mais sa liste de sources regorge de documents d&#8217;archives. En fait, ce sont peut-&#234;tre les qualit&#233;s les plus remarquables de son livre: la recherche est minutieuse et sans censure. En cons&#233;quence, toute gaie notion d&#8217;unit&#233; c&#232;de rapidement la place au d&#233;saccord et &#224; &#8220;le pousser-tirer&#8221; de la contingence, ce qui est beaucoup plust r&#233;aliste. Car c&#8217;est bien de cela qu&#8217;il s&#8217;agit, sugg&#232;re-t-il en quelque sorte vers la fin, en &#233;voquant les travaux ult&#233;rieurs de Hayek: la r&#233;alit&#233;, qui est en perp&#233;tuel changement. Si l&#8217;on admet que les n&#233;olib&#233;raux avaient raison, dit-il, le libre-&#233;change et les prix libres sont importants parce qu&#8217;ils sont &#8220;une sorte de machinerie d&#8217;enregistrement du changement&#8221;. Et puisque l&#8217;argent n&#8217;est ni de l&#8217;or ni du travail, mais un contrat l&#233;gal, il est de la plus haute importance d&#8217;avoir de la transparence lors de l&#8217;enregistrement de ce changement.</p><p>Slobodian parle d&#8217;un ph&#233;nom&#232;ne mondial, cependant, et souligne &#224; quel point &#8220;la question de taille&#8221; change tout. C&#8217;est en fait la raison pour laquelle les n&#233;olib&#233;raux s&#8217;affrontaient le plus, dit-il. Apr&#232;s une avalanche de nouveaux nationalismes des pays pauvres dans les ann&#233;es 1960s, R&#246;pke ressentait &#8220;de l&#8217;anxi&#233;t&#233; face aux changements dans l&#8217;ordre racial global&#8221; et est m&#234;me devenu un d&#233;fenseur de l&#8217;Apartheid. D&#8217;autres se sont pr&#233;cipit&#233;s pour exprimer publiquement leur d&#233;saccord avec lui. Ils pensaient n&#233;anmoins qu&#8217;une &#8220;franchise pond&#233;r&#233;e&#8221;, bas&#233;e sur le montant des imp&#244;ts pay&#233;s par un citoyen, par exemple, permettrait d&#8217;&#233;viter l&#8217;utilisation vengeresse des majorit&#233;s &#233;lectorales. D&#8217;un point de vue strictement Bolivien, il semble difficile d&#8217;&#233;prouver de l&#8217;empathie pour ces &#233;motions de gens blancs, encore moins de penser qu&#8217;ils puissent porter en eux une &#8220;critique de la d&#233;mocratie &#233;lectorale&#8221;. Mais la Bolivie fait partie d&#8217;un tout plus vaste et nous n&#8217;y pensons pas non plus tr&#232;s souvent. Au lieu de cela, il nous suffit de croire que nous avons un d&#233;bat plus intelligent et de peindre la carte de l&#8217;Am&#233;rique du Sud selon les derniers r&#233;sultats &#233;lectoraux. Nous peignons m&#234;me notre moral en couleurs et pleurons plus ou moins un d&#233;c&#232;s selon le c&#244;t&#233; qui tire le plus fort. Avec une attitude si docile, on ne peut pas honn&#234;tement dire que nous reprochons &#224; nos propres wannabe dictateurs. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h1>Espa&#241;ol</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9-F-!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88b0c90f-250d-4be9-b0a1-2564fe55cda7_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9-F-!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88b0c90f-250d-4be9-b0a1-2564fe55cda7_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9-F-!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88b0c90f-250d-4be9-b0a1-2564fe55cda7_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9-F-!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88b0c90f-250d-4be9-b0a1-2564fe55cda7_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9-F-!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88b0c90f-250d-4be9-b0a1-2564fe55cda7_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9-F-!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88b0c90f-250d-4be9-b0a1-2564fe55cda7_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/88b0c90f-250d-4be9-b0a1-2564fe55cda7_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:213102,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9-F-!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88b0c90f-250d-4be9-b0a1-2564fe55cda7_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9-F-!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88b0c90f-250d-4be9-b0a1-2564fe55cda7_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9-F-!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88b0c90f-250d-4be9-b0a1-2564fe55cda7_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9-F-!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F88b0c90f-250d-4be9-b0a1-2564fe55cda7_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Con esta rese&#241;a, cierro una serie en tres partes sobre neoliberalismo que en el mejor de los casos es improvisada pero de todos modos ha resultado &#250;til. El que esta palabra haya sido utilizada como arma por marxistas Bolivianos tiene ahora mucho m&#225;s sentido, aunque deber&#237;an profundizar m&#225;s la pr&#243;xima vez porque resulta que ellos tambi&#233;n est&#225;n desinformados. Puede que la forma de entender el neoliberalismo en Bolivia sea un monopolio actualmente, pero es un monopolio d&#233;bil; aquel que resulta de una falta de ideas en competencia. Esa es, creo, una primera reflexi&#243;n que puede hacerse de rese&#241;ar a <a href="https://elresenista.substack.com/p/mario-napoleon-pachecos-growth-policies">Pacheco</a>, <a href="https://elresenista.substack.com/p/a-brief-history-of-neoliberalism">Harvey</a> y ahora Slobodian (nuestra entrada en una literatura que por supuesto es mucho m&#225;s grande). Sin embargo, antes de hablar de neoliberalismo, marxismo o cualquier otro ismo, es necesario retroceder a una conversaci&#243;n m&#225;s b&#225;sica. Demasiada violencia est&#225; cambiando radicalmente el orden de prioridades y todo el mundo debe reaccionar en consecuencia. Si es que logramos salir de esta situaci&#243;n, las reglas del juego van a ir surgiendo poco a poco, pero todav&#237;a no estamos en esa etapa, lamentablemente. Lo que sigue por tanto es mi rese&#241;a de un libro cuyo tema parece inapropiado en este contexto: la investigaci&#243;n de Slobodian sobre la historia de una idea que Bolivia a menudo desprecia y a&#250;n m&#225;s a menudo desconoce. En cualquier caso &#8212; y suena casi cruel decir esto &#8212; lo bueno de aprender nuevas ideas, sea esta o cualquier otra, es que ofrecen una especie de parachoques o margen de error: si una idea acaba siendo un disparate, siempre puede morir una muerte figurativa y salvar a alguien de hacerse matar en la calle sin motivo.</p><h4>Primero un breve resumen</h4><p><em>Globalistas: El fin de los imperios y el nacimiento del neoliberalismo </em>es una historia intelectual sobre la evoluci&#243;n de la ideolog&#237;a neoliberal aproximadamente desde 1920 hasta 1990. El libro tiene siete cap&#237;tulos y una introducci&#243;n y conclusi&#243;n bastante grandes. La introducci&#243;n explica brevemente c&#243;mo el neoliberaliso fue hecho famoso y estigmatizado casi al mismo tiempo; luego Slobodian promete que su &#8220;narrativa&#8221; va a &#8220;corregir&#8221; esta &#8220;trama&#8221;. El resto avanza lentamente en el tiempo mostrando c&#243;mo esta ideolog&#237;a surgi&#243; de su predecesor, el liberalismo cl&#225;sico, entrando al siglo 20. Los dos primeros cap&#237;tulos hablan de estudios neoliberales tempranos sobre el ciclo comercial y la regulaci&#243;n de fronteras, impuestos y salarios para un mundo post-imperial; los cap&#237;tulos tres y cuatro explican las posteriores ideas de &#8220;federaci&#243;n supranacional&#8221; que dieron origen a instituciones como el FMI, el Banco Mundial y la CEE (un precursor de la UE); los cap&#237;tulos cinco a siete discuten los obst&#225;culos que todas estas ideas enfrentaron en un mundo con un n&#250;mero cada vez mayor de pa&#237;ses soberanos. La conclusi&#243;n regresa al actual estigma neoliberal sin decidir si est&#225; o no justificado, es decir que el libro endereza hechos e incluso toma partido, pero a fin de cuentas no reivindica a nadie.</p><p>Slobodian naci&#243; en Canad&#225; y estudi&#243; historia en EEUU, primero en la Lewis &amp; Clark College, en Portland, y luego en NYU, donde obtuvo su PhD en 2008. Desde ese a&#241;o hasta ahora, ense&#241;&#243; historia en la Wellesley College, Massachusetts. Empez&#243; como profesor asistente y actualmente ocupa un puesto importante ense&#241;ando historia Alemana, su &#225;rea de expertise. Desde 2020, ha sido co-editor de la revista acad&#233;mica <em>Contemporary European History</em> y el a&#241;o pasado se incorpor&#243; a Chatham House, un think-tank con sede en Londres especializado en asuntos internacionales. Su <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217205223/https://www.quinnslobodian.com/">sitio web</a> personal lista m&#225;s de cinco docenas de textos acad&#233;micos, cap&#237;tulos de libros y art&#237;culos ocasionales publicados en peri&#243;dicos renombrados como <em>The Guardian</em>, <em>The New York Times</em> o <em>The Nation</em>, lo que muestra que a pesar de ser todav&#237;a un historiador joven goza ya de buena reputaci&#243;n. Adem&#225;s, como muchos intelectuales hoy en d&#237;a, Slobodian tweetea copiosamente, a menudo en tono bromista &#8212; hace un a&#241;o llam&#243; a David Harvey &#8220;verdaderamente el padrino del marxismo millennial&#8221;. A sus cuarenta y tantos, ha editado hasta ahora dos libros y ha escrito otros tres, el segundo de los cuales rese&#241;o aqu&#237; en su primera edici&#243;n, de 2018.</p><h4>El libro en cuesti&#243;n</h4><p>La tesis de Slobodian es que &#8220;para bien o para mal&#8221; los neoliberales pensaban que la democracia moderna, una cosa post-imperial por excelencia, era tanto un logro como un hurac&#225;n indomable. &#201;l dice que esta ins&#243;lita preocupaci&#243;n por los desperfectos de la democracia surgi&#243; primero en un grupo llamado Escuela de Ginebra (1920-30) &#8212; inicialmente compuesto por <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek">Hayek</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises">Mises</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Haberler">Haberler</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke">R&#246;pke</a> y <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionel_Robbins">Robbins</a> &#8212; que a&#250;n en los 1980s era poco conocido si bien algunos miembros cobraron importancia por separado. Para estos hombres, la &#8220;estrella polar&#8221; de la primera ola de globalizaci&#243;n (1870-1914) hab&#237;a sido el Imperio Brit&#225;nico, pero tras la Primera Guerra Mundial y la Gran Depresi&#243;n era necesario un nuevo orden. Y lejos de ser renunciados, los viejos pilares Brit&#225;nicos de &#8220;libre comercio&#8221; y &#8220;moneda fuerte&#8221; deb&#237;an ser preservados. Esta vez, de nuevo &#8220;pensando en t&#233;rminos de &#243;rdenes&#8221;, pero con una mirada global, cosa que fue posible mediante mezcolanza intelectual. La propia palabra &#8220;orden&#8221; vino del ordoliberalismo Alem&#225;n en este caso y, sostiene Slobodian, se la combin&#243; con una idea de &#8220;doble gobierno&#8221; sacada de los &#8220;escombros&#8221; de otro imperio.</p><p>Dentro del &#8220;pedigr&#237; Ginebrino&#8221;, como lo llama Slobodian, los economistas Austriacos hab&#237;an asistido a la disoluci&#243;n de los Habsburgo (1914-18) y ten&#237;an por ello recuerdos de primera mano de la p&#233;rdida de cohesi&#243;n imperial. Adem&#225;s, al estudiar los &#8220;escombros&#8221;, se toparon con una &#8220;separaci&#243;n de econom&#237;a y pol&#237;tica&#8221; que Slobodian piensa que suele ser &#8220;ignorada&#8221;. Mucho antes de cualquier reuni&#243;n en Ginebra (1930-40s), fueron estas cosas, dice, las que llevaron a los neoliberales a buscar soluciones para su &#8220;caso protot&#237;pico de estado peque&#241;o en las tormentas de la globalizaci&#243;n&#8221;. En resumen, recetaron montar una red de estados-naci&#243;n, cada uno con un gobierno &#8220;encogido&#8221; pero &#8220;fuerte&#8221; y sobre todo un consejo de pol&#237;tica econ&#243;mica &#8220;independiente&#8221;. Una vez puesta en marcha esta maquinaria, la tarea consist&#237;a en asegurar que los aranceles no obstaculizaran la fuga de capitales, que la mano de obra se contratase all&#237; donde los salarios eran m&#225;s bajos y que los sindicatos (Europeos, por entonces) no hicieran met&#225;stasis de ego&#237;smo seccional. Les gustara o no, la parte vital de la red era la &#8220;interdependencia econ&#243;mica&#8221;; su peor enemigo, el &#8220;nacionalismo econ&#243;mico&#8221;. O esa es, al menos, la cosmovisi&#243;n temprana que Slobodian en cierto modo rescata y dice encontrar &#8220;coherente&#8221;.</p><p>Tambi&#233;n destaca lo cosmopolita que fue este periodo de lluvia de ideas neoliberales. Y hasta qu&#233; punto gir&#243;, aunque no solamente, en torno a la &#8220;relaci&#243;n Anglo-Americana&#8221;. Hayek, dice, recogi&#243; &#8220;la idea de investigar el ciclo comercial&#8221; tras una visita a EEUU (1926), y la comparti&#243; emocionado con sus colegas mientras cerraba acuerdos de financiamiento para investigaciones similares en Europa. Eso desat&#243; un importante v&#237;nculo con dinero filantr&#243;pico Estadounidense (as&#237; como con sus intereses). A la vez, siendo su oficio algo nuevo y cerebral, Slobodian dice que los economistas adquirieron r&#225;pidamente un &#8220;prestigio especial&#8221;. La persona promedio los ve&#237;a como agentes de &#8220;un espacio m&#225;s all&#225; de la pol&#237;tica&#8221;, supuestamente libre de su contaminaci&#243;n. De ah&#237; que personificaran lo que &#233;l llama la &#8220;met&#225;fora del bar&#243;metro&#8221;, cuyo m&#233;rito &#250;ltimo, reputaci&#243;n cerebral no obstante, fue haber iniciado una nueva tradici&#243;n de contabilidad abierta y m&#225;s rigurosa. Esto, hace notar, tanto en el sector p&#250;blico como privado, y en duro contraste con el liberalismo cl&#225;sico. Sin embargo el cambio para &#233;l no implica tanto un culto a los n&#250;meros, sino encarar una cuesti&#243;n &#8220;b&#225;sica&#8221;, incluso &#8220;est&#233;tica&#8221;.</p><p>Slobodian cita a Haberler para elaborar sobre este &#250;ltimo punto, quien describ&#237;a el mercado, dice, como una &#8220;celos&#237;a de actos econ&#243;micos individuales&#8221;: una cosa social, puesta en t&#233;rminos de otra met&#225;fora. Slobodian dedica muchas p&#225;ginas a decir que los neoliberales rechazaban el &#8220;mito&#8221; del laissez-faire y que estaban m&#225;s bien enfocados en dise&#241;ar un &#8220;marco institucional&#8221; para regular esos mercados &#8220;celos&#237;a&#8221;. Pero dice que el chiste de esta met&#225;fora es la complejidad, el hecho de que ning&#250;n gobierno, por adepto y sobredimensionado que fuere, puede aspirar a comprender la complejidad de los mercados. Por esto, el punto de vista neoliberal, como lo plante&#243; Hayek, era que era rid&#237;culo tratar de regularlo todo, pero que era vital hacerlo estrat&#233;gicamente. Ah&#237; el verdadero desacuerdo de los neoliberales con los marxistas. Y por qu&#233; despu&#233;s de la Segunda Guerra Mundial otro <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217214129/https://www.spiegel.de/fotostrecke/wie-alfred-mueller-armack-die-soziale-marktwirtschaft-erfand-fotostrecke-151043.html?sara_ref=re-xx-cp-sh">pu&#241;ado</a> de apellidos en Alem&#225;n &#8212; entre otros Groeben, Mestm&#228;cker, Eucken, Bh&#246;m, M&#252;ller-Armack &#8212; dieron un paso &#8220;de lo econ&#243;mico a lo legal&#8221;.</p><p>Con la ley (es decir orden, recu&#233;rdese), la &#8220;megaloman&#237;a fiscal&#8221; fue rechazada en pos de un &#8220;modelo de federaci&#243;n neoliberal&#8221;. Slobodian dice que el basti&#243;n original de todo esto era la Liga de las Naciones, pero desafortunadamente la ONU, su sucesora, pas&#243; a manos de rivales &#8212; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Kaldor">Kaldor</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal">Myrdal</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Balogh%2C_Baron_Balogh">Balogh</a> &#8212; por lo que los neoliberales tuvieron que irse a otra parte. El FMI y el Banco Mundial fueron creados en 1944, el GATT en 1947. Estas instituciones, dice, deb&#237;an poner la regulaci&#243;n econ&#243;mica fuera del alcance de pa&#237;ses individuales, sentando as&#237; las bases para una &#8220;Comunidad Econ&#243;mica Europea&#8221; (CEE), como se la llam&#243; e hizo oficial con el Tratado de Roma, una d&#233;cada despu&#233;s. El criterio de fondo (una lecci&#243;n de posguerra, la verdad) era la necesidad de &#8220;renunciar a la soberan&#237;a&#8221; por un bien com&#250;n mayor. Pero, a&#241;ade Slobodian, no todo el mundo en Europa estaba dispuesto a eso, ni tampoco otros pa&#237;ses m&#225;s pobres (ex colonias, la mayor&#237;a), que ahora tambi&#233;n asist&#237;an a la Asamblea General de la ONU.</p><p>Slobodian da muchos ejemplos de las batallas diplom&#225;ticas para las que esta asamblea se convirti&#243; en un veh&#237;culo. Dice que en 1952, con una propuesta de Uruguay y Bolivia, la asamblea &#8220;aprob&#243; la primera resoluci&#243;n de muchas&#8221; ligando la soberan&#237;a nacional a la propiedad de las riquezas naturales de un territorio. Francia, en 1957, exigi&#243; la inclusi&#243;n de sus colonias a condici&#243;n de firmar del Tratado de Roma: una postura similar para su propia versi&#243;n de qu&#233; era lo que le pertenec&#237;a. Slobodian dice que reclamos como estos enfrentaron a pa&#237;ses ricos y pobres, pero que ninguno se ajustaba al &#8220;modelo normativo neoliberal&#8221;. Al contrario que la ONU, dice, los neoliberales rechazaban los reclamos igualitarios por ser tanto &#8220;inclusivos&#8221; como &#8220;excluyentes&#8221;, seg&#250;n qu&#233; lado jalase m&#225;s fuerte. La soluci&#243;n que propon&#237;an era introducir &#8220;una igualdad formal&#8221; que, respaldada por una autoridad supranacional, tuviera prioridad sobre la &#8220;desigualdad real hist&#243;ricamente determinada&#8221;. Pero al igual que con la CEE, la aceptaci&#243;n fue desigual. Muchas m&#225;s naciones eran ahora independientes, y &#8220;para bien o para mal&#8221;, hacer o&#237;r su voto importaba m&#225;s que formar parte de cualquier red.</p><h4>Mi comentario</h4><p>Slobodian hace un buen trabajo en mostrar la importancia reveladora de cualquier &#8220;prehistoria intelectual&#8221;, no solo la del neoliberalismo. No conforme con divulgar varias rencillas turbias entre filas neoliberales, su lista de fuentes est&#225; repleta de material de archivo. De hecho, puede que esas sean las cualidades m&#225;s notables de su libro: la investigaci&#243;n es exhaustiva y sin censura. Como resultado, cualquier noci&#243;n risue&#241;a de unidad da paso r&#225;pidamente al desacuerdo y el &#8220;tira y afloja&#8221; de la contingencia, cosa que es mucho m&#225;s realista. Porque eso es lo que est&#225; en juego, sugiere en cierto modo hacia el final, al hablar de la obra tard&#237;a de Hayek: la realidad, que siempre es cambiante. Concediendo que los neoliberales hayan tenido raz&#243;n, dice, el libre comercio y los precios variables importan porque son &#8220;una especie de maquinaria para registrar el cambio&#8221;. Y ya que el dinero no es ni oro ni mano de obra, sino un contrato legal, es de suma importancia tener transparencia a la hora de registrar ese cambio.</p><p>Slobodian habla de un fen&#243;meno mundial, sin embargo, y subraya hasta qu&#233; punto &#8220;la cuesti&#243;n de tama&#241;o&#8221; lo cambia todo. Ese fue de hecho el principal motivo de choque entre los neoliberales, dice. Tras una avalancha de nuevos nacionalismos de pa&#237;ses pobres en los 1960s, R&#246;pke sinti&#243; &#8220;ansiedad por cambios en el orden racial global&#8221; e incluso se hizo defensor del Apartheid. Otros se apresuraron a expresar p&#250;blicamente que no estaban de acuerdo con &#233;l. Aun as&#237; pensaban que un &#8220;sufragio ponderado&#8221;, basado en cu&#225;nto paga un ciudadano en impuestos, por ejemplo, ayudar&#237;a a evitar el uso vengativo de mayor&#237;as electorales. Desde un punto de vista estrictamente Boliviano, parece dif&#237;cil empatizar con estas emociones de gente blanca, m&#225;s aun pensar que puedan llevar consigo una &#8220;cr&#237;tica de la democracia electoral&#8221;. Pero Bolivia es parte de un todo m&#225;s grande y tampoco pensamos en eso muy a menudo. Antes bien, nos basta con creer que estamos teniendo un debate m&#225;s inteligente y pintar el mapa de Am&#233;rica del Sur seg&#250;n los &#250;ltimos resultados electorales. Incluso pintamos nuestra moral de colores y lloramos una muerte m&#225;s o menos seg&#250;n qu&#233; bando jala m&#225;s fuerte. Con una actitud as&#237; de mansa, no se puede decir honestamente que reprobamos a nuestros propios wannabe dictadores. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><blockquote><h4>Reference</h4><p><em>The <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/globalists-the-end-of-empire-and-the-birth-of-neoliberalism/oclc/1055887597?referer=di&amp;ht=edition">edition</a> I used for this review.</em></p><p><em>Last updated on 11 May 2024.</em></p></blockquote>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[A brief history of neoliberalism - by David Harvey]]></title><description><![CDATA[#Review #Econ]]></description><link>https://erblog.net/p/a-brief-history-of-neoliberalism</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://erblog.net/p/a-brief-history-of-neoliberalism</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[ER]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 22 May 2022 11:54:12 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MxYt!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F13397085-8065-4457-91b7-93421e872cd9_2000x2000.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<blockquote><h4>Pick your language</h4><p><em>English</em></p><p><em>Fran&#231;ais</em></p><p><em>Espa&#241;ol</em></p></blockquote><h1>English</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MxYt!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F13397085-8065-4457-91b7-93421e872cd9_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MxYt!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F13397085-8065-4457-91b7-93421e872cd9_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MxYt!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F13397085-8065-4457-91b7-93421e872cd9_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MxYt!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F13397085-8065-4457-91b7-93421e872cd9_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MxYt!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F13397085-8065-4457-91b7-93421e872cd9_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MxYt!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F13397085-8065-4457-91b7-93421e872cd9_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/13397085-8065-4457-91b7-93421e872cd9_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:298334,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MxYt!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F13397085-8065-4457-91b7-93421e872cd9_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MxYt!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F13397085-8065-4457-91b7-93421e872cd9_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MxYt!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F13397085-8065-4457-91b7-93421e872cd9_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MxYt!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F13397085-8065-4457-91b7-93421e872cd9_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>In banker talk, &#8220;denomination&#8221; is the currency in which a financial contract is agreed upon. In a loan, for instance, both parties involved set the amount (principal) as well as the currency (denomination) in which it is owed. They don&#8217;t decide the interest rate, or rather not entirely, because that falls within a central bank&#8217;s bailiwick, as part of its tools to exert control over the money supply. But here&#8217;s the catch. At the scale of a nation-state with its own central bank, denomination is more important than debt. If it is your own currency that funds your deficit, then &#8220;debt&#8221; doesn&#8217;t mean the same for you as it does for your borrowers. Harvey insists above that this is unfair to the smaller players, but ultimately it is something that can only happen through consensus. As Marjorie Deane and Robert Pringle say in <em>The central banks</em>,</p><blockquote><p>what really counts [&#8230;] is the degree of acceptance a currency finds in the wide world outside, beyond the writ of the local government. The central banker sends his currency issue forth into the world, to sink or swim in the deep pools of world commerce, far from the shores of home.</p></blockquote><p>Note that &#8220;acceptance&#8221; here does not exclude the possibility of hegemonic pressures, yet is not synonymous with them either. And unbelievable though it may seem, there are both pros and cons to having your currency used as a world reserve, as are the US dollar, the British sterling, the Japanese yen or the euro (which in this regard essentially succeeded the Deutsche mark). The following is my review of Harvey&#8217;s take on these currencies&#8217; hegemony, especially the dollar&#8217;s, who likens it not to acceptance, but rather to empire.</p><h4>First a little overview</h4><p><em>A brief history of neoliberalism</em> is a historic and disapproving commentary about one of the biggest projects the West has pursued in the 20th century. It has seven chapters, the first one broadly introduces the subject matter, placing its starting point in the 1970s, the second describes the Anglo-American promoters of the trend, the third and fourth aim at contrasting the &#8220;theory&#8221; and &#8220;pragmatics&#8221; of neoliberal dogma, the fifth makes a brief assessment of Deng Xiaoping&#8217;s China, the sixth tells why neoliberalism allegedly failed to renovate capitalism and the seventh outlines a way out of it, such as Harvey sees it. The book covers a wide list of countries and episodes, which gives it a panoramic albeit non comprehensive view. Judging by the tone, the author must have meant to write a definitive polemic &#8220;dispatch&#8221;, but did more of a beginner-friendly crash course on a story that couldn&#8217;t possibly have fit in a single book.</p><p>Harvey was born in Kent, England, and studied geography at St John&#8217;s College, Cambridge, where he finished his PhD in 1962. He gave lectures at the University of Bristol between 1961-69, then migrated to the US and taught geography at Johns Hopkins University, in Baltimore, between 1969-89 and again between 1993-2001. He also taught at Oxford between 1987-93 and has been a distinguished professor at City University of New York since 2001 until now. In addition, he has over a dozen honorary degrees from various universities and geographic institutes across the world, all spread over the six decades his career has elapsed. He has a <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217181227/https://davidharvey.org/reading-capital/">course</a> on Marx&#8217;s <em>Capital</em> which is said to be very popular, as well as a <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217181505/https://davidharvey.org/2023/06/new-podcast-david-harveys-anti-capitalist-chronicles/">podcast</a> called<em> Anti-capitalist chronicles</em>. It may therefore be fair to call Harvey an active critic of capitalism and a very famous figure within that realm. At 86, he has written around twenty books, <em>A brief history of neoliberalism</em> being his ninth book, and here I used the first paperback edition, from 2007.</p><h4>The book in question</h4><p>Harvey&#8217;s thesis is that the sole success of neoliberalism was to restore the power of world-class economic elites. That is, people in Bloomberg&#8217;s billionaires <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217095216/https://www.bloomberg.com/billionaires/">index</a>, tax haven customers and the like. The way this came to be, Harvey says, is by accident. He holds that a &#8220;crisis of capital accumulation&#8221; in the late 20th century &#8220;stumbled&#8221; upon it. Or, harsher still, that the neoliberal blunder is visible in the gap between its &#8220;failed utopian rhetoric&#8221; on one side and its &#8220;successful restoration of ruling-class power&#8221; on the other. The specific neoliberal strand Harvey seems to target, however, is more American than global. His time frame goes from the end of the so-called Bretton Woods system (1971) to the dawn of the Iraq War (2002): from Nixon to Bush Jr. Thus in a colorful if a bit astrological bid, Harvey says there were actually two 9/11s: the one we all know and, &#8220;almost thirty years to the day before&#8221;, the Pinochet coup in Chile (1973). The latter, he claims, was recycled from the periphery as a blueprint for one of the first wars of the 21st century.</p><p>In fact, Harvey thinks the more mainstream implementations, in the US under Ronald Reagan (1981-89) and in the UK under Margaret Thatcher (1979-90), were somehow inspired by the Pinochet incident. In developed countries, this was the period of transition from Keynes&#8217; &#8220;embedded liberalism&#8221;, which Harvey sort of approves of, to Friedman&#8217;s &#8220;monetarism&#8221;, which he doesn&#8217;t. Prior to this, the gold standard was abandoned for good (the end of Bretton Woods), inflation in the US rose to a historic high (14.8%) and Paul Volcker, then chair of the Federal Reserve, brought it back down. Volcker&#8217;s measures were controversial to say the least, and Harvey clearly looks askance at them, since he uses their famous derogatory name: &#8220;Volcker shock&#8221;. This may put Harvey among those who don&#8217;t believe inflation and unemployment are linked. His contention is instead that, during this first slew of neoliberal reforms, workers unions were deliberately broken to save Wall Street and the London Stock Exchange. And again, he claims the blueprint was subsequently recycled &#8220;to exact tribute from the rest of the world&#8221;.</p><p>The intellectual background Harvey gives to all this is rather short. He mentions Hayek and Mises, so he checks some essential boxes; he also makes the point of calling Mont P&#232;lerin a &#8220;spa&#8221;, to belittle the movement&#8217;s founding place. Besides this, it is really Wall Street, the Fed and the IMF that Harvey has in his crosshairs, which for him were in cahoots since around the 1970s. Neoliberalism at that point was becoming an established subject of academic research, championed by no less than two Nobel Prize-winning economists, Hayek and Friedman. To Harvey this merely legitimized, and poorly so, what he calls &#8220;accumulation by dispossession&#8221;, a term that he coined and steadily repeats in the book. So things like economic research think-tanks and globalization itself, both of which Harvey puts in skeptical quotation marks, are to him really the envoys of &#8220;a more open system of imperialism without colonies&#8221;. In this system, indebted countries did receive help in the form of debt restructuring and even debt forgiveness, but only in return for taking the &#8220;poison pill&#8221; of neoliberal reforms.</p><p>Aside from Chile, this is how most developing countries turn up in the book. It is how they become structural to the &#8220;hegemonic ideas&#8221; of neoliberalism. Harvey mentions, as examples, the Mexican foreign debt crisis (1982), the flotation of the baht in Thailand (1997) and the period under Menem in Argentina (1989-99), all of which are known for being controversial. Likewise (and this is puzzling), he points to West Germany, Japan and the so-called Asian Tigers as evidence that prosperity between the 1980s and early 2000s was caused by something <em>other</em> than neoliberalism. Typically Western answers for problems of developing countries, such as &#8220;crony capitalism&#8221; or the lack of strong private property rights, are included for show, but invariably discarded by Harvey as &#8220;free market fundamentalism&#8221;. He concurs with others in saying that low wages (an impressive $0.30 per hour, according to his figures) allowed China to attract enormous amounts of foreign direct investment since 1979, a year after Deng Xiaoping took office. But he doesn&#8217;t credit Deng Xiaoping for this. Although he acknowledges the man&#8217;s historic importance, he has certainly made it his mission to begrime.</p><h4>My commentary</h4><p>Harvey&#8217;s book is neither wrong nor unique for being against neoliberalism. To some, it may lose appeal on account of its name-calling, but not on account of its parcial standpoint. When addressing Russia or China, for instance, Harvey doesn&#8217;t back down from calling them &#8220;authoritarian states&#8221; (and this is shortly after the arrival of Putin, but still before that of Xi Jinping, mind you). Then again, because he&#8217;s made class &#8220;restoration&#8221; his main focus, Harvey repeatedly finds himself having to call the new Russian and Chinese elites a case of class &#8220;formation&#8221;. I think this may point to a weak spot in his thesis, for without a conservative push at its core, class power, however old or hegemonic, is no longer quite the same as what he calls neoliberal hegemony. And that&#8217;s not all. Harvey&#8217;s book has also been <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217195156/http://isj.org.uk/theorising-neoliberalism/">flagged</a> by Chris Harman, another well reputed fellow marxist no less, for being inaccurate in its figures. Therefore, even if they are to agree with Harvey, his readers may need to resort to supplementary sources in order to filter out the faults.</p><p>But of course, all the above turns especially delicate when faced with the question of why Harvey decided to call his book a &#8220;brief history&#8221;. If he had written such a thing (a kind of informal textbook, that is), the minutiae of his references would require fitting historical accounts beside them, and he doesn&#8217;t give many. The total of what he says about the Mont P&#232;lerin Society, for example, does not exceed what anyone can find in the institution&#8217;s about page. Such an approach may be deemed suitable for an opinion column (and even that would be wrong), but it simply should have no place in proper historical work. In other words, it seems to me that although Harvey didn&#8217;t intend to write a pedagogical book, he did aim at a college crowd. To some extent, he even does this openly when calling for &#8220;inquiries&#8221; and &#8220;movements&#8221; to lead tomorrow&#8217;s critique of neoliberalism. And yes, a critique is indeed necessary, but even more so is that this critique goes beyond Harvey&#8217;s willfully simplistic view of the relationship between lending and borrowing countries. This because, as of 2022, it is still the case that both these types of countries are perfectly capable of acting recklessly. They should both beware. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h1>Fran&#231;ais</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vqaR!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35c50615-afb9-4ad1-a30a-e1c7fbeab6bc_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vqaR!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35c50615-afb9-4ad1-a30a-e1c7fbeab6bc_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vqaR!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35c50615-afb9-4ad1-a30a-e1c7fbeab6bc_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vqaR!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35c50615-afb9-4ad1-a30a-e1c7fbeab6bc_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vqaR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35c50615-afb9-4ad1-a30a-e1c7fbeab6bc_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vqaR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35c50615-afb9-4ad1-a30a-e1c7fbeab6bc_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/35c50615-afb9-4ad1-a30a-e1c7fbeab6bc_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:346851,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vqaR!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35c50615-afb9-4ad1-a30a-e1c7fbeab6bc_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vqaR!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35c50615-afb9-4ad1-a30a-e1c7fbeab6bc_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vqaR!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35c50615-afb9-4ad1-a30a-e1c7fbeab6bc_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vqaR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F35c50615-afb9-4ad1-a30a-e1c7fbeab6bc_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>En parole de banquier, la &#8220;d&#233;nomination&#8221; est la monnaie dans laquelle un contrat financier est convenu. Dans un pr&#234;t, par exemple, les deux parties concern&#233;es fixent le montant (principal) ainsi que la monnaie (d&#233;nomination) dans laquelle il est d&#251;. Elles ne d&#233;cident pas du taux d&#8217;int&#233;r&#234;t, ou plut&#244;t pas enti&#232;rement, car cela fait partie des comp&#233;tences d&#8217;une banque centrale, dans le cadre de ses outils de contr&#244;le de la masse mon&#233;taire. Mais voici le hic. &#192; l&#8217;&#233;chelle d&#8217;un &#233;tat-nation avec sa propre banque centrale, la d&#233;nomination est plus importante que la dette. Si c&#8217;est votre propre monnaie qui finance votre d&#233;ficit, alors la &#8220;dette&#8221; n&#8217;a pas la m&#234;me signification pour vous que pour vos emprunteurs. Harvey insiste ci-dessus sur le fait que cela est injuste pour les petits acteurs, mais en fin de compte c&#8217;est quelque chose qui ne peut que se produire par consensus. Comme le disent Marjorie Deane et Robert Pringle dans <em>The central banks</em>,</p><blockquote><p>ce qui compte vraiment [...] c&#8217;est le degr&#233; d&#8217;acceptation qu&#8217;une monnaie trouve dans le vaste monde ext&#233;rieur, au-del&#224; du mandat du gouvernement local. Le banquier central envoie sa monnaie vers le monde, pour qu&#8217;elle coule ou nage dans les profonds bassins du commerce mondial, loin des rivages de la maison.</p></blockquote><p>Notez qu&#8217;ici &#8220;acceptation&#8221; n&#8217;exclut pas la possibilit&#233; de pressions h&#233;g&#233;moniques, mais n&#8217;en est pas non plus synonyme. Et aussi incroyable que cela puisse para&#238;tre, il y a des avantages et des inconv&#233;nients &#224; avoir votre monnaie utilis&#233; comme r&#233;serve mondiale, comme c&#8217;est le cas du dollar Am&#233;ricain, la livre Britannique, le yen Japonais ou l&#8217;euro (qui &#224; cet &#233;gard a essentiellement succ&#233;d&#233; au Deutsche mark). Ce qui suit est ma revue de l&#8217;appr&#233;ciation de Harvey sur l&#8217;h&#233;g&#233;monie de ces monnaies, en particulier celle du dollar, qui l&#8217;assimile non pas &#224; une acceptation, mais plut&#244;t au empire.</p><h4>D&#8217;abord un bref r&#233;sum&#233;</h4><p><em>Une br&#232;ve histoire du n&#233;olib&#233;ralisme</em> est un commentaire historique et d&#233;sapprobateur sur l&#8217;un des plus grands projets que l&#8217;Occident a poursuivis au 20e si&#232;cle. Il a sept chapitres, le premier pr&#233;sente le sujet de mani&#232;re g&#233;n&#233;rale, en situant son point de d&#233;part dans les ann&#233;es 1970s, le deuxi&#232;me d&#233;crit les promoteurs Anglo-Am&#233;ricains de la tendance, les troisi&#232;me et quatri&#232;me visent &#224; contraster la &#8220;th&#233;orie&#8221; et la &#8220;pragmatique&#8221; du dogme n&#233;olib&#233;ral, le cinqui&#232;me fait une br&#232;ve &#233;valuation de la Chine de Deng Xiaoping, le sixi&#232;me explique pourquoi le n&#233;olib&#233;ralisme a pr&#233;tendument &#233;chou&#233; &#224; r&#233;nover le capitalisme et le septi&#232;me esquisse une issue, telle que la voit Harvey. Le livre couvre une large liste de pays et d&#8217;&#233;pisodes, ce qui lui donne une vue panoramique bien que non exhaustive. &#192; en juger par le ton, l&#8217;auteur devait avoir l&#8217;intention d&#8217;&#233;crire une &#8220;d&#233;p&#234;che&#8221; pol&#233;mique d&#233;finitive, mais il a plut&#244;t donn&#233; un cours acc&#233;l&#233;r&#233; pour d&#233;butants sur une histoire qui n&#8217;aurait pas pu tenir dans un seul livre.</p><p>Harvey est n&#233; en Kent, Angleterre, et a &#233;tudi&#233; g&#233;ographie au St John&#8217;s College, &#224; Cambridge, o&#249; il a obtenu son doctorat en 1962. Il a donn&#233; des conf&#233;rences &#224; la University of Bristol entre 1961-69, puis a &#233;migr&#233; aux &#201;tats-Unis et a enseign&#233; g&#233;ographie &#224; la Johns Hopkins University, &#224; Baltimore, entre 1969-89 et encore entre 1993-2001. Il a &#233;galement enseign&#233; &#224; Oxford entre 1987-93 et a &#233;t&#233; professeur &#233;m&#233;rite &#224; la City University of New York de 2001 &#224; aujourd&#8217;hui. En outre, il a plus d&#8217;une douzaine de dipl&#244;mes honorifiques de plusieurs universit&#233;s et instituts g&#233;ographiques &#224; travers le monde, tous r&#233;partis sur les six d&#233;cennies qu&#8217;a dur&#233; sa carri&#232;re. Il a un <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217181227/https://davidharvey.org/reading-capital/">cours</a> sur <em>Le capital</em> de Marx qui est r&#233;put&#233; tr&#232;s populaire, ainsi qu&#8217;un <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217181505/https://davidharvey.org/2023/06/new-podcast-david-harveys-anti-capitalist-chronicles/">podcast</a> intitul&#233; <em>Anti-capitalist chronicles</em>. Donc il est peut-&#234;tre juste de dire que Harvey est un critique actif du capitalisme et une figure tr&#232;s c&#233;l&#232;bre dans ce domaine. &#192; 86 ans, il a &#233;crit environ une vingtaine de livres, <em>Une br&#232;ve histoire du n&#233;olib&#233;ralisme</em> &#233;tant son neuvi&#232;me livre, et j&#8217;ai utilis&#233; ici la premi&#232;re &#233;dition de poche, de 2007.</p><h4>Le livre en question</h4><p>La th&#232;se de Harvey est que le seul succ&#232;s du n&#233;olib&#233;ralisme a &#233;t&#233; de restaurer le pouvoir des &#233;lites &#233;conomiques de classe mondiale. C&#8217;est-&#224;-dire, des gens figurant dans l&#8217;<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217095216/https://www.bloomberg.com/billionaires/">indice</a> de milliardaires de Bloomberg, des clients des paradis fiscaux et la pareille. La fa&#231;on dont cela s&#8217;est pass&#233;, dit Harvey, est par hasard. Il soutient qu&#8217;une &#8220;crise d&#8217;accumulation de capital&#8221; &#224; la fin du 20e si&#232;cle a &#8220;tr&#233;buch&#233;&#8221; dessus. Ou, plus s&#233;v&#232;re encore, que la b&#233;vue n&#233;olib&#233;rale est visible dans l&#8217;&#233;cart entre sa &#8220;rh&#233;torique utopique rat&#233;e&#8221; d&#8217;un c&#244;t&#233; et sa &#8220;restauration r&#233;ussie du pouvoir de la classe dirigeante&#8221; de l&#8217;autre. Le courant n&#233;olib&#233;ral sp&#233;cifique que Harvey semble viser, cependant, est toutefois plus &#201;tats-Unien que mondial. Son cadre temporel va de la fin du soi-disant syst&#232;me de Bretton Woods (1971) &#224; l&#8217;aube de la Guerre d&#8217;Iraq (2002): de Nixon &#224; Bush Jr. Ainsi dans une ench&#232;re color&#233;e bien qu&#8217;un peu astrologique, Harvey dit qu&#8217;il y a eu en r&#233;alit&#233; deux 9/11s: celui que nous connaissons tous et, &#8220;presque trente ans avant jour pour jour&#8221;, le coup de Pinochet &#224; Chili (1973). Ce dernier, soutient-t-il, a &#233;t&#233; recycl&#233; de la p&#233;riph&#233;rie comme mod&#232;le pour l&#8217;une des premi&#232;res guerres du 21e si&#232;cle.</p><p>En fait, Harvey pense que les mises en &#339;uvre les plus courantes, aux &#201;tats-Unis sous Ronald Reagan (1981-89) et au Royaume-Uni sous Margaret Thatcher (1979-90), ont &#233;t&#233; en quelque sorte inspir&#233;es par l&#8217;incident Pinochet. Dans les pays d&#233;velopp&#233;s, c&#8217;&#233;tait la p&#233;riode de transition entre le &#8220;lib&#233;ralisme int&#233;gr&#233;&#8221; de Keynes, que Harvey approuve en quelque sorte, et le &#8220;mon&#233;tarisme&#8221; de Friedman, qu&#8217;il n&#8217;approuve pas. Avant cela, l&#8217;&#233;talon-or a &#233;t&#233; d&#233;finitivement abandonn&#233; (la fin de Bretton Woods), l&#8217;inflation aux &#201;tats-Unis a atteint un niveau historique (14.8%) et Paul Volcker, alors governeur de la R&#233;serve F&#233;d&#233;rale, l&#8217;a fait baisser. Les mesures de Volcker &#233;taient pour le moins controvers&#233;es, et Harvey les regarde clairement de travers, puisqu&#8217;il utilise leur c&#233;l&#232;bre nom p&#233;joratif: &#8220;choc Volcker&#8221;. Cela pourrait placer Harvey parmi ceux qui ne croient pas que l&#8217;inflation et le ch&#244;mage sont li&#233;s. Son avis est plut&#244;t que, pendant cette premi&#232;re s&#233;rie de r&#233;formes n&#233;olib&#233;rales, les syndicats de travailleurs ont &#233;t&#233; d&#233;lib&#233;r&#233;ment bris&#233;s pour sauver Wall Street et la London Stock Exchange. Et encore une fois, il soutient que le mod&#232;le a &#233;t&#233; recycl&#233; par la suite &#8220;pour exiger un tribut du reste du monde&#8221;.</p><p>Le contexte intellectuel que Harvey donne &#224; tout cela est plut&#244;t court. Il mentionne Hayek et Mises, alors il coche quelques cases essentielles; il prend aussi le soin d&#8217;appeler Mont P&#232;lerin un &#8220;spa&#8221;, pour d&#233;pr&#233;cier le lieu de fondation du mouvement. Par ailleurs, c&#8217;est vraiment Wall Street, la Fed et le FMI que Harvey a dans sa ligne de mire, qui pour lui &#233;taient de m&#232;che depuis les ann&#233;es 1970s environ. Le n&#233;olib&#233;ralisme &#233;tait &#224; ce stade en train de devenir un sujet &#233;tabli de recherche acad&#233;mique, promu par rien de moins que deux &#233;conomistes laur&#233;ats du Prix Nobel, Hayek et Friedman. Pour Harvey cela n&#8217;a fait que l&#233;gitimer, et mal, ce qu&#8217;il appelle &#8220;accumulation par d&#233;possession&#8221;, un term qu&#8217;il a invent&#233; et r&#233;p&#232;te constamment dans son livre. Alors des choses comme les think-tanks de recherche &#233;conomique et la globalisation elle-m&#234;me, que Harvey place tous deux entre guillemets sceptiques, sont pour lui vraiment les envoy&#233;s &#8220;d&#8217;un syst&#232;me plus ouvert d&#8217;imp&#233;rialisme sans colonies&#8221;. Dans ce syst&#232;me, les pays endett&#233;s ont certes re&#231;u de l&#8217;aide sous la forme d&#8217;une restructuration et m&#234;me une remise de dette, mais seulement en &#233;change de prendre la &#8220;pilule empoisonn&#233;e&#8221; des r&#233;formes n&#233;olib&#233;rales.</p><p>&#192; l&#8217;exception du Chili, c&#8217;est ainsi que la plupart des pays en d&#233;veloppement apparaissent dans le livre. C&#8217;est ainsi qu&#8217;ils deviennent structurels aux &#8220;id&#233;es h&#233;g&#233;moniques&#8221; du n&#233;olib&#233;ralisme. Harvey mentionne, comme exemples, la crise de la dette ext&#233;rieure Mexicaine (1982), la flotation du baht en Tha&#239;lande (1997) et la p&#233;riode sous Menem en Argentine (1989-99), qui sont toutes connues pour &#234;tre controvers&#233;es. De m&#234;me (et c&#8217;est bizarre), il pointe vers l&#8217;Allemagne de l&#8217;Ouest, le Japon et ceux que l&#8217;on appelle Tigres Asiatiques comme preuves que la prosp&#233;rit&#233; entre les ann&#233;es 1980s et le d&#233;but des ann&#233;es 2000s a &#233;t&#233; caus&#233;e par <em>autre chose</em> que le n&#233;olib&#233;ralisme. Des r&#233;ponses typiquement Occidentales aux probl&#232;mes des pays en d&#233;veloppement, telles que le &#8220;capitalisme des copains&#8221; ou l&#8217;absence de forts droits de propri&#233;t&#233; priv&#233;e, sont incluses pour en montrer, mais invariablement rejet&#233;es par Harvey comme &#8220;fondamentalisme du march&#233; libre&#8221;. Il est d&#8217;accord avec d&#8217;autres en disant que les bas salaires (un impressionnant $0.30 de l&#8217;heure, selon ses chiffres) ont permis &#224; la Chine d&#8217;attirer d&#8217;&#233;normes quantit&#233;s d&#8217;investissements directs &#233;trangers depuis 1979, un an apr&#232;s l&#8217;arriv&#233;e au pouvoir de Deng Xiaoping. Mais il n&#8217;en attribue pas le m&#233;rite &#224; Deng Xiaoping. Bien qu&#8217;il reconna&#238;t l&#8217;importance historique de l&#8217;homme, il s&#8217;est certainement donn&#233; pour mission de souiller.</p><h4>Mon commentaire</h4><p>Le livre de Harvey n&#8217;est ni mauvais ni unique parce qu&#8217;il s&#8217;oppose au n&#233;olib&#233;ralisme. Pour certains, il peut perdre son attrait en raison de ses injures, mais pas en raison de son point de vue partial. Lorsqu&#8217;il se r&#233;f&#232;re &#224; la Russie ou la Chine, par exemple, Harvey n&#8217;h&#233;site pas &#224; les qualifier comme &#8220;&#233;tats autoritaires&#8221; (et c&#8217;est peu apr&#232;s l&#8217;arriv&#233;e de Poutine, mais encore avant celle de Xi Jinping, au fait). En revanche, parce qu&#8217;il a fait la &#8220;restauration&#8221; de classe son objectif, Harvey se retrouve &#224; plusieurs reprises &#224; devoir appeler les nouvelles &#233;lites Russes et Chinoises des cas de &#8220;formation&#8221; de classe. Je pense que cela peut indiquer un point faible dans sa th&#232;se, car sans une pouss&#233;e conservatrice &#224; son c&#339;ur, le pouvoir de classe, aussi ancien ou h&#233;g&#233;monique soit-il, n&#8217;est plus tout &#224; fait le m&#234;me que ce qu&#8217;il appelle h&#233;g&#233;monie n&#233;olib&#233;rale. Et ce n&#8217;est pas tout. Le livre de Harvey a &#233;t&#233; aussi <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217195156/http://isj.org.uk/theorising-neoliberalism/">signal&#233;</a> par Chris Harman, un autre marxiste r&#233;put&#233; rien de moins, pour &#234;tre inexact dans ses chiffres. Par cons&#233;quent, m&#234;me s&#8217;ils vont &#234;tre d&#8217;accord avec Harvey, ses lecteurs peuvent avoir besoin de recourir &#224; des sources suppl&#233;mentaires afin de filtrer les fautes.</p><p>Mais bien s&#251;r, tout ce qui pr&#233;c&#232;de devient particuli&#232;rement d&#233;licat face &#224; la question de pourquoi Harvey a d&#233;cid&#233; appeler son livre une &#8220;br&#232;ve histoire&#8221;. S&#8217;il e&#251;t &#233;crit une telle chose (une sorte de manuel scolaire informel, cet-&#224;-dire), la minutie de ses r&#233;f&#233;rences n&#233;cessiterait des comptes historiques correspondants &#224; c&#244;t&#233; d&#8217;elles, et il n&#8217;en donne pas beaucoup. Le total de ce qu&#8217;il dit sur la Mont P&#232;lerin Society, par exemple, ne d&#233;passe pas ce que quelconque peut trouver dans la page d&#8217;accueil de l&#8217;institution. Une telle approche peut &#234;tre jug&#233;e appropri&#233;e pour une colonne d&#8217;opinion (et m&#234;me cela serait erron&#233;), mais elle ne devrait tout simplement pas avoir place dans un travail historique digne de ce nom. En d&#8217;autres termes, il me semble que m&#234;me si Harvey n&#8217;avait pas l&#8217;intention d&#8217;&#233;crire un livre p&#233;dagogique, il visait sans doute un public universitaire. Dans une certaine mesure, il le fait m&#234;me ouvertement lorsqu&#8217;il appelle &#224; des &#8220;enqu&#234;tes&#8221; et &#8220;mouvements&#8221; pour mener la critique du n&#233;olib&#233;ralisme de demain. Et oui, une critique est effectivement n&#233;cessaire, mais encore plus n&#233;cessaire est que cette critique aille au-del&#224; de la vision d&#233;lib&#233;r&#233;ment simpliste qu&#8217;a Harvey de la relation entre pays pr&#234;teurs et emprunteurs. Ceci parce que, &#224; la date de 2022, c&#8217;est encore le cas que ces deux types de pays sont parfaitement capables d&#8217;agir de mani&#232;re imprudente. Ils devraient tous deux faire attention. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h1>Espa&#241;ol</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!w_gk!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F772d74c7-bcff-4881-9292-e9b9f8c1c98f_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!w_gk!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F772d74c7-bcff-4881-9292-e9b9f8c1c98f_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!w_gk!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F772d74c7-bcff-4881-9292-e9b9f8c1c98f_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!w_gk!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F772d74c7-bcff-4881-9292-e9b9f8c1c98f_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!w_gk!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F772d74c7-bcff-4881-9292-e9b9f8c1c98f_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!w_gk!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F772d74c7-bcff-4881-9292-e9b9f8c1c98f_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/772d74c7-bcff-4881-9292-e9b9f8c1c98f_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:358545,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!w_gk!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F772d74c7-bcff-4881-9292-e9b9f8c1c98f_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!w_gk!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F772d74c7-bcff-4881-9292-e9b9f8c1c98f_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!w_gk!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F772d74c7-bcff-4881-9292-e9b9f8c1c98f_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!w_gk!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F772d74c7-bcff-4881-9292-e9b9f8c1c98f_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>En habla de banquero, la &#8220;denominaci&#243;n&#8221; es la moneda en la que se acuerda un contrato financiero. En un pr&#233;stamo, por ejemplo, las dos partes involucradas fijan el monto (principal) y la moneda (denominaci&#243;n) en la que este se debe. No deciden la tasa de inter&#233;s, o mejor dicho no del todo, porque eso es competencia del banco central, como parte de sus instrumentos para controlar la oferta monetaria. Pero he aqu&#237; el asunto. A la escala de un estado-naci&#243;n con su propio banco central, la denominaci&#243;n es m&#225;s importante que la deuda. Si es tu propia moneda la que financia tu d&#233;ficit, entonces &#8220;deuda&#8221; no significa lo mismo para ti que para tus prestatarios. Harvey insiste aqu&#237; arriba en que esto es injusto para los actores m&#225;s peque&#241;os, pero en &#250;ltima instancia es algo que no puede sino ocurrir por consenso. Como dicen Marjorie Deane y Robert Pringle en <em>The central banks</em>,</p><blockquote><p>lo que realmente cuenta [...] es el grado de aceptaci&#243;n que una moneda encuentra en el ancho mundo exterior, m&#225;s all&#225; del control del gobierno local. El banquero central env&#237;a su emisi&#243;n monetaria hacia el mundo, para hundirse o nadar en las profundas aguas del comercio mundial, lejos de las costas de casa.</p></blockquote><p>N&#243;tese que &#8220;aceptaci&#243;n&#8221; no excluye aqu&#237; la posibilidad de presiones hegem&#243;nicas, pero tampoco es sin&#243;nimo de ellas. Y por incre&#237;ble que parezca, tiene ventajas y desventajas el hecho de que una moneda se use como reserva mundial, como ocurre con el d&#243;lar Estadounidense, la libra Inglesa, el yen Japon&#233;s o el euro (que en este sentido esencialmente sucedi&#243; al marco Alem&#225;n). Lo que sigue es mi rese&#241;a de la apreciaci&#243;n de Harvey sobre la hegemon&#237;a de estas monedas, especialmente la del d&#243;lar, quien la asemeja no con aceptaci&#243;n, sino con imperio.</p><h4>Primero un breve resumen</h4><p><em>Una breve historia del neoliberalismo</em> es un comentario hist&#243;rico y reprobador sobre uno de los mayores proyectos que ha llevado a cabo Occidente en el siglo 20. Tiene siete cap&#237;tulos, el primero presenta a grandes rasgos el tema, situando su punto de partida en los 1970s, el segundo describe a los promotores Anglo-Americanos de la tendencia, el tercero y el cuarto intentan contrastar la &#8220;teor&#237;a&#8221; y &#8220;pragm&#225;tica&#8221; del dogma neoliberal, el quinto hace una breve valoraci&#243;n de la China de Deng Xiaoping, el sexto dice por qu&#233; el neoliberalismo supuestamente fracas&#243; en su intento de renovar el capitalismo y el s&#233;ptimo esboza una salida, tal como la ve Harvey. El libro abarca una amplia lista de pa&#237;ses y episodios, lo que le da una visi&#243;n panor&#225;mica aunque no exhaustiva. A juzgar por el tono, el autor ha debido querer escribir un &#8220;dispatch&#8221; pol&#233;mico definitivo, pero hizo m&#225;s bien un curso intensivo para principiantes sobre una historia que no podr&#237;a haber cabido en un solo libro.</p><p>Harvey naci&#243; en Kent, Inglaterra, y estudi&#243; geograf&#237;a en la St John&#8217;s College, en Cambridge, donde termin&#243; su doctorado en 1962. Dio charlas en la University of Bristol entre 1961-69, luego emigr&#243; a Estados Unidos y ense&#241;&#243; geograf&#237;a en la Johns Hopkins University, en Baltimore, entre 1969-89 y de nuevo entre 1993-2001. Tambi&#233;n ense&#241;&#243; en Oxford entre 1987-93 y ha sido profesor distinguido en la City University of New York desde 2001 hasta ahora. Adem&#225;s, tiene m&#225;s de una docena de t&#237;tulos honor&#237;ficos de diversas universidades e institutos geogr&#225;ficos de todo el mundo, todos repartidos a lo largo de las seis d&#233;cadas que ha durado su carrera. Tiene un <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217181227/https://davidharvey.org/reading-capital/">curso</a> sobre <em>El capital</em> de Marx que se dice es muy popular, as&#237; como un <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217181505/https://davidharvey.org/2023/06/new-podcast-david-harveys-anti-capitalist-chronicles/">podcast</a> llamado <em>Anti-capitalist chronicles</em>. Por lo tanto quiz&#225; sea justo llamar a Harvey un cr&#237;tico activo del capitalismo y una figura muy famosa dentro de ese &#225;mbito. A sus 86 a&#241;os, ha escrito una veintena de libros, <em>Una breve historia del neoliberalismo</em> siendo su noveno libro, y aqu&#237; he utilizado la primera edici&#243;n de tapa blanda, de 2007.</p><h4>El libro en cuesti&#243;n</h4><p>La tesis de Harvey es que el &#250;nico &#233;xito del neoliberalismo fue restablecer el poder de &#233;lites econ&#243;micas de clase mundial. O sea, gente que aparece en el <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217095216/https://www.bloomberg.com/billionaires/">&#237;ndice</a> de billonarios de Bloomberg, clientes de para&#237;sos fiscales y similares. La forma en que esto se produjo, dice Harvey, es por accidente. &#201;l sostiene que una &#8220;crisis de acumulaci&#243;n de capital&#8221; a finales del siglo 20 &#8220;tropez&#243;&#8221; con ello. O, m&#225;s duro a&#250;n, que el error neoliberal es visible en la brecha entre su &#8220;ret&#243;rica ut&#243;pica fallida&#8221; por un lado y su &#8220;exitosa restauraci&#243;n del poder de la clase dominante&#8221; por otro. La corriente neoliberal espec&#237;fica a la que Harvey parece dirigirse, sin embargo, es m&#225;s Estadounidense que global. Su marco temporal va desde el final del llamado sistema de Bretton Woods (1971) hasta los albores de la Guerra de Iraq (2002): desde Nixon hasta Bush Jr. As&#237; en una apuesta pintoresca aunque un poco astrol&#243;gica, Harvey dice que en realidad hubo dos 9/11s: el que todos conocemos y, &#8220;casi treinta a&#241;os antes exactamente&#8221;, el coup de Pinochet en Chile (1973). Este &#250;ltimo, sostiene, fue reciclado de la periferia como modelo para una de las primeras guerras del siglo 21.</p><p>De hecho, Harvey cree que las implementaciones m&#225;s sonadas, en Estados Unidos con Ronald Reagan (1981-89) y en el Reino Unido con Margaret Thatcher (1979-90), se inspiraron de alguna manera en el incidente Pinochet. En los pa&#237;ses desarrollados, este era el per&#237;odo de transici&#243;n del &#8220;liberalismo incrustado&#8221; de Keynes, que Harvey aprueba en cierto modo, al &#8220;monetarismo&#8221; de Friedman, que no aprueba en absoluto. Antes de esto, el patr&#243;n oro fue abandonado definitivamente (el fin de Bretton Woods), la inflaci&#243;n en EEUU alcanz&#243; un m&#225;ximo hist&#243;rico (14.8%) y Paul Volcker, entonces presidente de la Reserva Federal, la redujo. Las medidas de Volcker fueron controvertidas por decir lo menos, y Harvey claramente las mira con recelo, ya que usa su famoso nombre despectivo: &#8220;shock Volcker&#8221;. Puede que esto sit&#250;e a Harvey entre aquellos que no creen que la inflaci&#243;n y el desempleo est&#225;n relacionados. Su argumento es m&#225;s bien que, durante esta primera tanda de reformas neoliberales, se quebr&#243; deliberadamente a los sindicatos de trabajadores para salvar a Wall Street y a la London Stock Exchange. Y de nuevo, &#233;l sostiene que el modelo fue posteriormente reciclado &#8220;para exigir tributo al resto del mundo&#8221;.</p><p>El trasfondo intelectual que Harvey da a todo esto es bastante corto. Menciona a Hayek y Mises, as&#237; que marca algunas casillas esenciales; tambi&#233;n se cuida de llamar a Mont P&#232;lerin un &#8220;spa&#8221;, para menospreciar el lugar de fundaci&#243;n del movimiento. Aparte de esto, es realmente Wall Street, la Fed y el FMI lo que Harvey tiene en la mira, que para &#233;l estaban confabulados desde los a&#241;os 1970s aproximadamente. El neoliberalismo estaba en aquel momento convirti&#233;ndose en un tema establecido de investigaci&#243;n acad&#233;mica, promovido nada menos que por dos economistas ganadores del Premio Nobel, Hayek y Friedman. Para Harvey esto no hizo sino legitimar, y mal, lo que &#233;l llama &#8220;acumulaci&#243;n por desposesi&#243;n&#8221;, un t&#233;rmino que &#233;l acu&#241;&#243; y que repite constantemente en el libro. As&#237; que cosas como los think-tanks de investigaci&#243;n econ&#243;mica y la globalizaci&#243;n misma, las cuales Harvey pone entre comillas esc&#233;pticas, son para &#233;l realmente los enviados de &#8220;un sistema m&#225;s abierto de imperialismo sin colonias&#8221;. En este sistema, los pa&#237;ses endeudados s&#237; recibieron ayuda en forma de reestructuraci&#243;n e incluso condonaci&#243;n de deuda, pero s&#243;lo a cambio de tomar la &#8220;p&#237;ldora venenosa&#8221; de las reformas neoliberales.</p><p>Aparte de Chile, as&#237; es como la mayor&#237;a de los pa&#237;ses en desarrollo aparecen en el libro. Es as&#237; que se vuelven estructurales a las &#8220;ideas hegem&#243;nicas&#8221; del neoliberalismo. Harvey menciona, como ejemplos, la crisis de la deuda externa Mexicana (1982), la flotaci&#243;n del baht en Tailandia (1997) y el per&#237;odo de Menem en Argentina (1989-99), todos hechos conocidos por ser controvertidos. Asimismo (y esto es extra&#241;o), apunta a Alemania Occidental, Jap&#243;n y los llamados Tigres Asi&#225;ticos como prueba de que la prosperidad entre los a&#241;os 1980s e inicios de los 2000s fue causada por <em>otra cosa</em> que el neoliberalismo. Las t&#237;picas respuestas Occidentales a problemas de pa&#237;ses en desarrollo, como el &#8220;capitalismo de amiguetes&#8221; o la falta de fuertes derechos de propiedad privada, se incluyen como muestra, pero son invariablemente descartadas por Harvey como &#8220;fundamentalismo de libre mercado&#8221;. &#201;l coincide con otros en afirmar que los salarios bajos (un impresionante $0.30 la hora, seg&#250;n sus cifras) permitieron a China atraer enormes cantidades de inversi&#243;n extranjera directa desde 1979, un a&#241;o despu&#233;s de que Deng Xiaoping asumiera el poder. Pero no atribuye m&#233;rito a Deng Xiaoping por esto. Aunque reconoce la importancia hist&#243;rica del hombre, ciertamente ha hecho de ensuciar su misi&#243;n.</p><h4>Mi comentario</h4><p>El libro de Harvey no es equivocado ni &#250;nico por estar en contra del neoliberalismo. Para algunos, puede que pierda atractivo debido a sus insultos, pero no debido a su punto de vista parcial. Cuando se refiere a Rusia o China, por ejemplo, Harvey no evita llamarlos &#8220;estados autoritarios&#8221; (y esto es poco despu&#233;s de la llegada de Putin, pero todav&#237;a antes de la de Xi Jinping, por cierto). Por otra parte, dado que ha hecho de la &#8220;restauraci&#243;n&#8221; de clase su principal objetivo, Harvey se ve continuamente obligado a llamar a las nuevas &#233;lites Rusas y Chinas un caso de &#8220;formaci&#243;n&#8221; de clase. Creo que esto puede se&#241;alar un punto d&#233;bil en su tesis, ya que sin un impulso conservador en su centro, el poder de clase, por muy antiguo o hegem&#243;nico que sea, ya no es exactamente lo mismo que lo que &#233;l llama hegemon&#237;a neoliberal. Y eso no es todo. El libro de Harvey tambi&#233;n ha sido <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217195156/http://isj.org.uk/theorising-neoliberalism/">se&#241;alado</a> por Chris Harman, otro reputado marxista nada menos, por ser inexacto en sus cifras. Por lo tanto, incluso si van a estar de acuerdo con Harvey, puede que sus lectores deban recurrir a fuentes complementarias para filtrar los errores.</p><p>Pero claro, todo lo anterior se vuelve especialmente delicado ante la pregunta de por qu&#233; Harvey decidi&#243; llamar a su libro una &#8220;breve historia&#8221;. Si hubiera escrito tal cosa (una especie de libro de texto informal, es decir), las minucias de sus referencias deber&#237;an tener sendos recuentos hist&#243;ricos al lado, y &#233;l no da muchos. El total de lo que dice sobre la Mont P&#232;lerin Society, por ejemplo, no supera lo que cualquiera puede encontrar en la p&#225;gina de informaci&#243;n del sitio web de la instituci&#243;n. Tal enfoque podr&#237;a considerarse adecuado para una columna de opini&#243;n (e incluso eso ser&#237;a un error), pero simplemente no deber&#237;a tener cabida en un trabajo hist&#243;rico riguroso. En otras palabras, me parece que aunque Harvey no pretend&#237;a escribir un libro pedag&#243;gico, s&#237; que se dirig&#237;a a un p&#250;blico universitario. En cierta medida, incluso lo hace abiertamente cuando llama a que &#8220;investigaciones&#8221; y &#8220;movimientos&#8221; lideren la cr&#237;tica al neoliberalismo del ma&#241;ana. Y s&#237;, una cr&#237;tica es efectivamente necesaria, pero lo es a&#250;n m&#225;s que esta cr&#237;tica vaya m&#225;s all&#225; de la visi&#243;n deliberadamente simplista de Harvey sobre la relaci&#243;n entre pa&#237;ses prestamistas y prestatarios. Esto porque, a fecha de 2022, sigue siendo el caso que estos dos tipos de pa&#237;ses son perfectamente capaces de actuar de forma imprudente. Ambos deber&#237;an tener cuidado. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><blockquote><h4>Reference</h4><p><em>The <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/brief-history-of-neoliberalism/oclc/1129277159&amp;referer=brief_results">edition</a> I used for this review.</em></p><p><em>Last updated on 31 January 2024.</em></p></blockquote>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Growth policies in democracy: Bolivia, economic growth and welfare 1980-2006 - by Mario N. Pacheco]]></title><description><![CDATA[#BookReview #Neoliberalism]]></description><link>https://erblog.net/p/mario-napoleon-pachecos-growth-policies</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://erblog.net/p/mario-napoleon-pachecos-growth-policies</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[ER]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 21 Nov 2021 11:00:42 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lw9c!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F483e463c-28db-4610-b9fd-dfbe31d0fb6b_2000x2000.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<blockquote><h4>This review can be read in:</h4><p><em>English</em></p><p><em>Fran&#231;ais</em></p><p><em>Espa&#241;ol</em></p></blockquote><h1>English</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lw9c!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F483e463c-28db-4610-b9fd-dfbe31d0fb6b_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lw9c!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F483e463c-28db-4610-b9fd-dfbe31d0fb6b_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lw9c!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F483e463c-28db-4610-b9fd-dfbe31d0fb6b_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lw9c!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F483e463c-28db-4610-b9fd-dfbe31d0fb6b_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lw9c!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F483e463c-28db-4610-b9fd-dfbe31d0fb6b_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lw9c!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F483e463c-28db-4610-b9fd-dfbe31d0fb6b_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" 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https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lw9c!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F483e463c-28db-4610-b9fd-dfbe31d0fb6b_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lw9c!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F483e463c-28db-4610-b9fd-dfbe31d0fb6b_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lw9c!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F483e463c-28db-4610-b9fd-dfbe31d0fb6b_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" 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y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>According to data shared in a recent <a href="https://archive.org/details/espinoza-tweet-deuda-afps_202312">tweet</a> by economist Gabriel Espinoza, even having eschewed the worst of the pandemic, the latest MAS government has so far sold debt to AFPs (Bolivia&#8217;s version of IRAs) for a whopping 9,715 million bolivianos (just over $1,400 million). In other words, they&#8217;re taking loans from people&#8217;s pension plans at almost twice the scale of former President &#193;&#241;ez during her tenure in 2020. This seems to put President Arce squarely in the vicinity of the Uni&#243;n Democr&#225;tica y Popular (UDP), the political party that got Bolivia from severe inflation to hyperinflation back in 1985. The underlying problem, as Pacheco points out, is that public spending, when poorly managed, can catapult debt into warlike magnitudes. But the thing is we live in times of widespread disdain for the alternative, be it fiscal discipline, foreign investment, capitalism altogether &#8212; you name it. The disdain is especially strong in Latin America, but the rest of the modern world is no stranger to it. So I think there is only one possible attitude to embrace: finding out whether or not it is justified. Mind you, this isn&#8217;t to patronize anybody; my contention is that we&#8217;re all pretty lost in this regard. That is why, for the next three posts, I will address the alternative as it is currently known in Latin America, as &#8220;neoliberalism&#8221;, from the point of view of Bolivia, the point of view of marxists and the point of view neoliberals themselves. The premise of this plan is of course contrast; the only road to an informed opinion. So, for starters, the following is my review of Pacheco&#8217;s take on Bolivia&#8217;s infamous &#8220;neoliberal&#8221; reforms.</p><h4>First a little overview</h4><p><em>Growth policies in democracy: Bolivia, economic growth and welfare 1980-2006</em> is an economic assessment of two structural reform packages implemented in Bolivia between 1985-97, first under Estenssoro and later under S&#225;nchez de Lozada. These two former presidents were both militants of the Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario (MNR), arguably the most notable political party in Bolivia&#8217;s modern history, at least until 2003 and the &#8220;crisis of the party system&#8221;, as Pacheco calls it. His book has five chapters, the first one draws a picture of the Bolivian economy, the second describes the reforms as such and the next three evaluate their impact on the macroeconomic, social and political economy aspects. Since the scope of the book encompasses the 1980-2006 period, Pacheco covers not only the reforms, but also the severe crisis that motivated them as well as a small part of what came after. Although his stance is explicitly pro reformism, he by no means presents only an encouraging view. To the sadness of any reader, in the end he says: &#8220;it was a good try, but it couldn&#8217;t be done&#8221;.</p><p>Pacheco was born in La Paz, Bolivia, he studied economics in the late 1970s at UMSA and since the 1990s at CIDES-UMSA, a graduate branch. His doctoral thesis, still unpublished, deals with the processes of growth and development in Bolivia between the 19th and 21st centuries. He has been a professor of economics and political science at UMSA for 30 years, in the 1980s he worked at the Ministry of Mining, then at the Institute of Economic Research (<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216195143/https://www.umsa.bo/institutos-umsa/-/asset_publisher/1pMoOCPnVT2d/content/instituto-de-investigaciones-economicas">IIE</a>) at UMSA and in the 1990s he worked for Bolivia&#8217;s central bank, the <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216195424/https://www.bcb.gob.bo/">BCB</a>. He was also a researcher at the Center for the Study of Labor and Agricultural Development (<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216195642/http://cedla.org/">CEDLA</a>) between 1994-96 and between 1996-2005 at the <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231214154722/https%3A%2F%2Ffundacion-milenio.org%2F">Milenio Foundation</a>, an institution he subsequently directed until 2017. On his own and in collaboration, he has so far published some twelve books, including a chapter of <em>A century of economics in Bolivia 1900-2015</em>, the most recent economic history of the country, published in two volumes in 2017. The book I review here is the seventh he wrote and I used the first edition, from 2008.</p><h4>The book in question</h4><p>Pacheco&#8217;s thesis is that the reforms carried out in the 1985-97 period &#8220;represented an economic and institutional streamline&#8221; for Bolivia at a time in which &#8220;the statist and protectionist [government] model was exhausted&#8221;. Although triggered by the mining crisis, he says, Bolivia&#8217;s first hyperinflation to date is actually explained by this exhaustion, a colonial heritage that collapsed between 1980-85 due to excessive public spending. Pacheco&#8217;s breakdown of the real causes of hyperinflation: 1) unprofitable public enterprises (YPFB, ENTEL, COMIBOL, ENDE, ENFE, LAB); 2) too high a number of workers in the state apparatus (245,000 at the time; according to Beatriz Muriel, an economist at <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216201553/https://www.inesad.edu.bo/2020/02/12/el-aparato-estatal-tiene-526-mil-funcionarios-por-ano-crece-10/">INESAD</a>, there were 500,000 in 2020); 3) volatility inherent to an economy too reliant on raw materials; and 4) &#8220;monetization of the deficit&#8221; by a central bank that wasn&#8217;t independent, but controlled from the executive branch. Pacheco says that as a result the 1984 deficit, 25.4% of GDP (9.7% in 2021, according to the Milenio <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216202638/https://fundacion-milenio.org/informe-de-milenio-sobre-la-economia-de-bolivia-2021-no-43/">report</a>), was &#8220;the highest since 1950&#8221; and that between 1982-85 a total of 1,216 protests were registered.</p><p>According to Pacheco, the reforms that addressed these problems, divided into two &#8220;generations&#8221; (1985-89 and 1993-97), sought first to stabilize the economy and later to modernize it. For starters, he says the contribution to national reserves was increased; tax collection was simplified and decentralized; it was imposed that the executive branch have its budgets approved before running them; interest rates were freed up and import tariffs lowered; price fixing was abolished; a new currency, the boliviano, was created; and a mechanism to guide the exchange rate was set up, called &#8220;bols&#237;n&#8221;. In order to limit public spending, 25,000 people were laid off of state payroll. Pacheco says it was at this point, towards the end of 1985, that the price of tin fell by 52.2%, so another 18,000 employees from Bolivia&#8217;s state-owned mining company, COMIBOL, had to be laid off, albeit with a severance pay. All in all, Pacheco says that &#8220;for the first time in seven years the performance of the economy was positive&#8221;, with an average GDP growth of 3.1% between 1987-89.</p><p>The second reform package, also controversial, sought to shore up the first, which by the early 1990s had begun to stagnate. In this case, a new <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216204445/https://www.cervantesvirtual.com/portales/constituciones_hispanoamericanas/obra/constitucion-politica-del-estado-de-bolivia-del-6-de-febero-de-1995/">constitution</a> was drafted in 1994 and several laws for a large-scale judicial reform were passed. Pacheco says that the independence of the central bank was at last imposed (law <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216204839/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1670.xhtml">1670</a>); the pension (law <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216205031/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1732.xhtml">1732</a>) and education (law <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216205147/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1565.xhtml">1565</a>) systems were reformed; health insurance programs were created (law <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216205317/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-2426.xhtml">2426</a> and others); government control was decentralized (laws <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216205445/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1551.xhtml">1551</a> and <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216205557/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1654.xhtml">1654</a>); public enterprises that generated deficits were privatized (or &#8220;capitalized&#8221;, in the wording of law <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216205810/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1544.xhtml">1544</a>); and to regulate these companies a new entity, the sectoral regulatory system (SIRESE), was created (law <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216210138/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1600.xhtml">1600</a>). Interestingly, although the 2009 constitution is usually credited for this, Pacheco says the &#8220;pluriculturality and multiethnicity of the country&#8221; were first put forward in the 1995 constitution. Moreover, foreign direct investment rose from 2.5% to 12.2 % of GDP between 1994-99, which Pacheco says meant higher national reserves and a more dynamic fossil fuel sector.</p><p>But the obstacles were many and too hard. Overall, between 1980-2006, fifteen years were of recession or low growth and twelve were only of moderate growth. Citing additional causes for this low rate of progress, Pacheco says that several external shocks made foreign debt less forgiving, for example the Mexican and Asian financial crises of the 1980s and 1990s, as well as the dot-com bubble in 2001. Especially, however, there was a decisive internal obstacle: the unequal distribution of wealth and education. This concentrated most of the change in the cities. Between 1976-2001, he says, the average change in unsatisfied basic needs was 27.3% in the cities but only 7.7% in rural areas. According to Pacheco, this caused a discontent that, together with an export <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216211225/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/08/world/lingering-feud-with-chile-threatens-bolivia-s-pipeline-plan.html">agreement</a> to take natural gas through Chile (2002), was fuelled by the left-wing elite to unearth the old distrust on reformism.</p><h4>My commentary</h4><p>Pacheco&#8217;s knowledge of Bolivia&#8217;s 1985-97 reforms presents several facts that no one can disagree with, whatever their political line may be. Where things get more complicated is in the fact that Pacheco does not give much weight to S&#225;nchez de Lozada&#8217;s <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217012912/https://www.jornada.com.mx/2003/10/08/035n1mun.php?origen=mundo.php&amp;fly=">refusal</a> to discuss gas exports with the population at large. According to Pacheco&#8217;s concept of private investment, which is not na&#239;ve, the agreement was potentially beneficial for the country. To him, the problem was actually the arrival of Morales to the presidency because, he says, it meant &#8220;the dismantling of the reforms&#8221;. Now, whoever hurries too much to disagree with that opinion, is likely to do nothing with it, apart from switching the name of the culprit and reversing the accusation. If that is what they call having a political line, so be it. For the rest, what alternative is there?</p><p>One answer Pacheco gives is simple, which is not to say that it&#8217;s easy: inequality is a problem now as it was in the reformist period. That does not mean quite the same today as it did back then, and the middle class has certainly grown, but there are still far too many people who are poor and uneducated. That has kept the citizenry as a whole from seeing the benefit of the reforms and it pushes large groups, even nowadays, to vote against them. Race-baiting also resonates deeply in this scenario because it&#8217;s the latest fashion in political discourse, but fundamentally because constituencies have shifted without the necessary updates for everyone to get a sense of improvement. The problem, as Pacheco says, is that reforms &#8220;happen slowly and in the long-term&#8221;. If you confuse anger with freedom, they will simply never come about. On the other hand, and although race-baiting politics says otherwise, freedom is fortunately not a class privilege. Before it becomes tangible in government and society, and precisely in order for it to do so, it is first something everyone must build on their own. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h1>Fran&#231;ais</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bn5j!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6b2e631-be5a-4106-8af6-335ac6d5087e_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bn5j!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6b2e631-be5a-4106-8af6-335ac6d5087e_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bn5j!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6b2e631-be5a-4106-8af6-335ac6d5087e_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bn5j!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6b2e631-be5a-4106-8af6-335ac6d5087e_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bn5j!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6b2e631-be5a-4106-8af6-335ac6d5087e_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bn5j!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6b2e631-be5a-4106-8af6-335ac6d5087e_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" 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https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bn5j!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6b2e631-be5a-4106-8af6-335ac6d5087e_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bn5j!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6b2e631-be5a-4106-8af6-335ac6d5087e_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bn5j!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd6b2e631-be5a-4106-8af6-335ac6d5087e_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Selon des donn&#233;es partag&#233;es dans un r&#233;cent <a href="https://archive.org/details/espinoza-tweet-deuda-afps_202312">tweet</a> de l&#8217;&#233;conomiste Gabriel Espinoza, m&#234;me ayant &#233;vit&#233; le pire de la pand&#233;mie, le dernier gouvernement du MAS a jusqu&#8217;&#224; pr&#233;sent vendu de la dette aux AFPs (la version Bolivienne de la retraite par r&#233;partition) pour l&#8217;&#233;norme somme de 9,715 millions de bolivianos (un peu plus de 1,200 millions d&#8217;euros). C&#8217;est-&#224;-dire, ils emprunte aux plans de retraite des gens &#224; pr&#232;s de deux fois l&#8217;&#233;chelle que l&#8217;ancienne Presidente &#193;&#241;ez pendant son mandat en 2020. Cela semble placer le Pr&#233;sident Arce dans la lign&#233;e imm&#233;diate de la Uni&#243;n Democr&#225;tica y Popular (UDP), le parti politique qui a fait passer la Bolivie d&#8217;une grave inflation &#224; l&#8217;hyperinflation en 1985. Le probl&#232;me sous-jacent, comme l&#8217;indique Pacheco, est que les d&#233;penses publiques, lorsqu&#8217;elles sont mal g&#233;r&#233;es, peuvent catapulter la dette vers des magnitudes guerri&#232;res. Mais le fait est que nous vivons dans une &#233;poque de m&#233;pris g&#233;n&#233;ralis&#233; pour l&#8217;alternative, que ce soit de la discipline fiscale, de l&#8217;investissement &#233;tranger, du capitalisme en soi &#8212; tou ce qu&#8217;on veut. Le m&#233;pris est sp&#233;cialement fort en Am&#233;rique Latine, mais le reste du monde moderne n&#8217;y est pas inconnu. Alors je crois qu&#8217;il n&#8217;y a qu&#8217;une seule attitude possible &#224; adopter: d&#233;couvrir s&#8217;il est justifi&#233;. &#192; noter, ceci n&#8217;est pas pour &#234;tre condescendant avec quinconque; mon avis est que nous sommes tous assez perdus &#224; cet &#233;gard. C&#8217;est pourquoi, dans les trois prochains posts, je vais aborder l&#8217;alternative telle qu&#8217;elle est connue actuellement en Am&#233;rique Latine, comme &#8220;n&#233;olib&#233;ralisme&#8221;, du point de vue de la Bolivie, du point de vue des marxistes et du point de vue des n&#233;olib&#233;raux eux-m&#234;mes. La pr&#233;misse de ce plan est bien s&#251;r le contraste; la seule voie vers une opinion inform&#233;e. Donc, pour commencer, ce qui suit est ma revue de l&#8217;appr&#233;ciation de Pacheco sur les inf&#226;mes r&#233;formes &#8220;n&#233;olib&#233;rales&#8221; en Bolivie.</p><h3>D&#8217;abord un bref r&#233;sum&#233;</h3><p><em>Politiques de croissance en d&#233;mocratie: Bolivie, croissance &#233;conomique et &#233;tat-providence 1980-2006</em> est une &#233;valuation &#233;conomique de deux paquets de r&#233;formes structurelles impl&#233;ment&#233;es en Bolivie entre 1985-97, d&#8217;abord sous Estenssoro et puis sous S&#225;nchez de Lozada. Ces deux anciens pr&#233;sidents &#233;taient tous deux des militants du Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario (MNR), peut-&#234;tre le parti politique le plus notable de l&#8217;histoire moderne de la Bolivie, du moins jusqu&#8217;en 2003 et la &#8220;crise du syst&#232;me des partis&#8221;, comme l&#8217;appelle Pacheco. Son livre a cinq chapitres, le premier dessine un tableau de l&#8217;&#233;conomie Bolivienne, le second d&#233;crive les r&#233;formes en tant que telles et les trois suivants &#233;valuent leur impact sur les aspects macro&#233;conomique, social et d&#8217;&#233;conomie politique. Comme la port&#233;e du livre comprend la p&#233;riode 1980-2006, Pacheco couvre non seulement les r&#233;formes, mais aussi la s&#233;v&#232;re crise qui les a motiv&#233;es ainsi qu&#8217;une petite partie de ce qui a suivi. Bien que sa position est explicitement pro r&#233;formisme, il ne pr&#233;sente en aucun cas seulement une vision encourageante. &#192; la tristesse de quelconque lecteur ou lectrice, il dit &#224; la fin : &#8220;c&#8217;&#233;tait une bonne tentative, mais cela n&#8217;a pas pu se faire&#8221;.</p><p>Pacheco est n&#233; &#224; La Paz, Bolivie, a &#233;tudi&#233; &#233;conomie &#224; la fin des ann&#233;es 1970s &#224; l&#8217;UMSA et  depuis les ann&#233;es 1990s &#224; CIDES-UMSA, une branche d&#8217;&#233;tudes sup&#233;rieures. Sa th&#232;se de doctorat, encore non publi&#233;e, traite des processus de croissance et d&#233;veloppement en Bolivie entre les 19e et 21e si&#232;cles. Il a &#233;t&#233; professeur d&#8217;&#233;conomie et de sciences politiques &#224; l&#8217;UMSA durant 30 ans, dans les ann&#233;es 1980s il a travaill&#233; au Minist&#232;re des Mines, puis &#224; l&#8217;Institut de Recherche &#201;conomique (<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216195143/https://www.umsa.bo/institutos-umsa/-/asset_publisher/1pMoOCPnVT2d/content/instituto-de-investigaciones-economicas">IIE</a>) &#224; l&#8217;UMSA et dans les ann&#233;es 1990s &#224; la banque centrale de la Bolivie, la <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216195424/https://www.bcb.gob.bo/">BCB</a>. Il a &#233;t&#233; aussi investigateur au Centre d&#8217;&#201;tudes sur le Labeur et le D&#233;veloppement Agraire (<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216195642/http://cedla.org/">CEDLA</a>) entre 1994-96 et entre 1996-2005 &#224; la <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231214154722/https%3A%2F%2Ffundacion-milenio.org%2F">Fondation Milenio</a>, institution qu&#8217;il a ensuite dirig&#233;e jusqu&#8217;en 2017. En solo et en collaboration, il a jusqu&#8217;&#224; pr&#233;sent publi&#233; environ douze livres, y compris un chapitre de <em>Un si&#232;cle d&#8217;&#233;conomie en Bolivie 1900-2015</em>, l&#8217;histoire &#233;conomique la plus r&#233;cente du pays, publi&#233;e en deux volumes en 2017. Le livre que je mets en revue ici est le septi&#232;me qu&#8217;il a &#233;crit et j&#8217;ai utilis&#233; la premi&#232;re &#233;dition, de 2008.</p><h3>Le livre en question</h3><p>La th&#232;se de Pacheco est que les r&#233;formes r&#233;alis&#233;es dans la p&#233;riode 1985-97 &#8220;ont repr&#233;sent&#233; une modernisation &#233;conomique et institutionnelle&#8221; pour la Bolivie &#224; une &#233;poque o&#249; &#8220;le mod&#232;le &#233;tatiste et protectionniste [du gouvernement] &#233;tait &#233;puis&#233;&#8221;. Bien que d&#233;clench&#233;e par la crise mini&#232;re, dit-il, la premi&#232;re hyperinflation Bolivienne &#224; ce jour s&#8217;explique en fait par cet &#233;puisement, un h&#233;ritage colonial qui s&#8217;est effondr&#233; entre 1980-85 en raison de d&#233;penses publiques excessives. La d&#233;composition de Pacheco des vraies causes de l&#8217;hyperinflation: 1) des entreprises publiques non profitables (YPFB, ENTEL, COMIBOL, ENDE, ENFE, LAB), 2) un nombre trop &#233;lev&#233; de travailleurs dans l&#8217;appareil d&#8217;&#233;tat (245,000 &#224; l&#8217;&#233;poque; selon Beatriz Muriel, &#233;conomiste &#224; <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216201553/https://www.inesad.edu.bo/2020/02/12/el-aparato-estatal-tiene-526-mil-funcionarios-por-ano-crece-10/">INESAD</a>, il y en avait 500,000 en 2020); 3) volatilit&#233; inh&#233;rente &#224; une &#233;conomie trop d&#233;pendante des mati&#232;res premi&#232;res, et 4) &#8220;mon&#233;tisation du d&#233;ficit&#8221; par une banque centrale qui n&#8217;&#233;tait pas ind&#233;pendante, mais contr&#244;l&#233;e par le pouvoir ex&#233;cutif. Pacheco dit qu&#8217;en cons&#233;quence le d&#233;ficit de 1984, 25.4% du PIB (9.7% en 2021, selon le <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216202638/https://fundacion-milenio.org/informe-de-milenio-sobre-la-economia-de-bolivia-2021-no-43/">rapport</a> Milenio), &#233;tait &#8220;le plus &#233;lev&#233; depuis 1950&#8221; et qu&#8217;entre 1982-85 un total de 1,216 protestations ont &#233;t&#233; enregistr&#233;es.</p><p>Selon Pacheco, les r&#233;formes qui ont abord&#233; ces probl&#232;mes, divis&#233;es en deux &#8220;g&#233;n&#233;rations&#8221; (1985-89 et 1993-97), visaient d&#8217;abord &#224; stabiliser l&#8217;&#233;conomie et puis &#224; la moderniser. Tout d&#8217;abord, il dit que la contribution aux r&#233;serves nationales a &#233;t&#233; augment&#233;e; la collecte des imp&#244;ts a &#233;t&#233; simplifi&#233;e et d&#233;centralis&#233;e; il a &#233;t&#233; impos&#233; que le pouvoir ex&#233;cutif fasse approuver ses budgets avant de les ex&#233;cuter; les taux d&#8217;int&#233;r&#234;t ont &#233;t&#233; lib&#233;r&#233;s et les tarifs d&#8217;importation abaiss&#233;s; la fixation des prix a &#233;t&#233; abolie; une nouvelle monnaie, le boliviano, a &#233;t&#233; cr&#233;&#233;e; et un m&#233;canisme pour guider le taux de change a &#233;t&#233; &#233;tabli, appel&#233; &#8220;bols&#237;n&#8221;. Pour limiter les d&#233;penses publiques, 25,000 personnes ont &#233;t&#233; licenci&#233;es de la paie de l&#8217;&#233;tat. Pacheco dit que c&#8217;est &#224; ce moment-l&#224;, vers la fin de 1985, que le prix de l&#8217;&#233;tain a chut&#233; de 52.2%, alors d&#8217;autres 18,000 employ&#233;s de l&#8217;entreprise mini&#232;re publique Bolivienne, COMIBOL, ont d&#251; &#234;tre licenci&#233;s, bien qu&#8217;avec une indemnit&#233; de d&#233;part. Tout compte fait, Pacheco dit que &#8220;pour la premi&#232;re fois en sept ans la performance de l&#8217;&#233;conomie a &#233;t&#233; positive&#8221;, avec une croissance moyenne du PIB de 3,1% entre 1987-89.</p><p>Le deuxi&#232;me paquet de r&#233;formes, &#233;galement controvers&#233;, visait &#224; relancer le premier, qui au d&#233;but des ann&#233;es 1990s avait commenc&#233; &#224; stagner. Dans ce cas, une nouvelle <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216204445/https://www.cervantesvirtual.com/portales/constituciones_hispanoamericanas/obra/constitucion-politica-del-estado-de-bolivia-del-6-de-febero-de-1995/">constitution</a> a &#233;t&#233; r&#233;dig&#233;e en 1994 et plusieurs lois pour une r&#233;forme judiciaire &#224; grande &#233;chelle ont &#233;t&#233; adopt&#233;es. Pacheco dit que l&#8217;ind&#233;pendance de la banque centrale a &#233;t&#233; enfin impos&#233;e (loi <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216204839/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1670.xhtml">1670</a>); les syst&#232;mes de retraite (loi <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216205031/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1732.xhtml">1732</a>) et d&#8217;&#233;ducation (loi <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216205147/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1565.xhtml">1565</a>) ont &#233;t&#233; r&#233;form&#233;s; des programmes d&#8217;assurance-maladie ont &#233;t&#233; cr&#233;&#233;s (loi <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216205317/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-2426.xhtml">2426</a> et autres); le contr&#244;le du gouvernement a &#233;t&#233; d&#233;centralis&#233; (lois <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216205445/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1551.xhtml">1551</a> et <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216205557/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1654.xhtml">1654</a>); les entreprises publiques qui g&#233;n&#233;raient des d&#233;ficits ont &#233;t&#233; privatis&#233;es (ou &#8220;capitalis&#233;es&#8221;, dans le libell&#233; de la loi <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216205810/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1544.xhtml">1544</a>); et pour r&#233;guler ces entreprises une nouvelle entit&#233;, le syst&#232;me de r&#233;gulation sectorielle (SIRESE), a &#233;t&#233; cr&#233;&#233;e (loi <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216210138/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1600.xhtml">1600</a>). Fait int&#233;ressant, bien que la constitution de 2009 est habituellement cr&#233;dit&#233; pour cela, Pacheco dit que la &#8220;pluriculturalit&#233; et multiethnicit&#233; du pays&#8221; ont &#233;t&#233; pos&#233;es pour la premi&#232;re fois par la constitution de 1995. De plus, l&#8217;investissement direct &#233;tranger est pass&#233; de 2.5% &#224; 12.2% du PIB entre 1994-99, ce qui Pacheco dit qu&#8217;a signifi&#233; des r&#233;serves nationales plus &#233;lev&#233;es et un secteur des combustibles fossiles plus dynamique.</p><p>Mais les obstacles &#233;taient nombreux et tr&#232;s durs. Somme toute, entre 1980-2006, quinze ann&#233;es ont &#233;t&#233; de r&#233;cession ou faible croissance et douze ont &#233;t&#233; de croissance mod&#233;r&#233;e. Citant des causes additionnelles pour ce faible rythme de progr&#232;s, Pacheco dit que plusieurs chocs externes ont rendu la dette ext&#233;rieure moins indulgente, par exemple les crises financi&#232;res Mexicaine et Asiatique des 1980s et 1990s, ainsi que la bulle du dot-com en 2001. Sp&#233;cialement, cependant, il y avait un obstacle interne d&#233;cisif: la distribution in&#233;gale de richesse et d&#8217;&#233;ducation. Cela a concentr&#233; la plupart des changements dans les cit&#233;s. Entre 1976-2001, dit-il, le changement moyen des besoins de base non satisfaits a &#233;t&#233; de 27.3% dans les cit&#233;s mais seulement 7.7% dans les zones rurales. Selon Pacheco, cela a caus&#233; un m&#233;contentement qui, avec un <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221004144106/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/08/world/lingering-feud-with-chile-threatens-bolivia-s-pipeline-plan.html">accord</a> d&#8217;exportation pour transporter du gaz naturel par Chili (2002), a &#233;t&#233; attis&#233; par l&#8217;&#233;lite de gauche pour d&#233;terrer la vieille m&#233;fiance envers le r&#233;formisme.</p><h3>Mon commentaire</h3><p>La connaissance de Pacheco des r&#233;formes de 1985-97 en Bolivie pr&#233;sente plusieurs faits avec lesquels personne ne peut &#234;tre en d&#233;saccord, quelle que soit sa ligne politique. L&#224; o&#249; les choses se compliquent est dans le fait que Pacheco n&#8217;accorde pas beaucoup de poids au <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217012912/https://www.jornada.com.mx/2003/10/08/035n1mun.php?origen=mundo.php&amp;fly=">refus</a> de S&#225;nchez de Lozada de discuter les exportations de gaz avec la population en g&#233;n&#233;ral. Selon le concept de Pacheco de l&#8217;investissement priv&#233;, qui n&#8217;est pas na&#239;ve, l&#8217;accord &#233;tait potentiellement b&#233;n&#233;fique pour le pays. Pour lui, le probl&#232;me a &#233;t&#233; plut&#244;t l&#8217;arriv&#233;e de Morales &#224; la pr&#233;sidence car cela a signifi&#233; &#8220;le d&#233;mant&#232;lement des r&#233;formes&#8221;. Or, quinconque qui se d&#233;p&#234;che trop de ne pas &#234;tre d&#8217;accord avec cette opinion, risque de ne rien en faire, en dehors de changer le nom du coupable et renverser l&#8217;accusation. Si c&#8217;est ce qu&#8217;on appelle avoir une ligne politique, allez-y. Pour le reste, quel choix y a-t-il?</p><p>Une r&#233;ponse que Pacheco donne est simple, ce qui ne veut pas dire qu&#8217;elle est facile: l&#8217;in&#233;galit&#233; est un probl&#232;me maintenant comme elle l&#8217;&#233;tait &#224; la p&#233;riode des r&#233;formes. Cela ne signifie pas presque la m&#234;me chose aujourd&#8217;hui qu&#8217;&#224; l&#8217;&#233;poque, et la classe moyenne a certainement grandi, mais il y a encore beaucoup trop de personnes qui sont pauvres et sans &#233;ducation. Cela a emp&#234;ch&#233; la citoyennet&#233; dans son ensemble de voir le b&#233;n&#233;fice des r&#233;formes et pousse des grands groupes, encore aujourd&#8217;hui, &#224; voter contre elles. L&#8217;app&#226;t racialiste r&#233;sonne aussi profond&#233;ment dans ce sc&#233;nario parce qu&#8217;il est la derni&#232;re mode dans le discours politique, mais fondamentalement parce que les &#233;lectorats ont chang&#233; sans les mises &#224; jour n&#233;cessaires pour que tout le monde ait un sentiment d&#8217;am&#233;lioration. Le probl&#232;me, comme Pacheco dit, est que les r&#233;formes &#8220;se produisent lentement et &#224; long terme&#8221;. Si vous confondez col&#232;re et libert&#233;, elles n&#8217;arriveront tout simplement jamais. D&#8217;autre part, et bien que la politique racialiste dit le contraire, la libert&#233; n&#8217;est heureusement pas un privil&#232;ge de classe. Avant de devenir tangible dans le gouvernement et la soci&#233;t&#233;, et pr&#233;cis&#233;ment pour qu&#8217;elle le devienne, c&#8217;est quelque chose que chacun et chacune doit construire de son c&#244;t&#233;. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h1>Espa&#241;ol</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!voTL!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faa033225-6b40-4a2e-a3de-d3ab61ecde26_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!voTL!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faa033225-6b40-4a2e-a3de-d3ab61ecde26_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!voTL!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faa033225-6b40-4a2e-a3de-d3ab61ecde26_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!voTL!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faa033225-6b40-4a2e-a3de-d3ab61ecde26_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!voTL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faa033225-6b40-4a2e-a3de-d3ab61ecde26_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!voTL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faa033225-6b40-4a2e-a3de-d3ab61ecde26_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" 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https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!voTL!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faa033225-6b40-4a2e-a3de-d3ab61ecde26_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!voTL!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faa033225-6b40-4a2e-a3de-d3ab61ecde26_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!voTL!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faa033225-6b40-4a2e-a3de-d3ab61ecde26_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" 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y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Seg&#250;n datos compartidos en un reciente <a href="https://archive.org/details/espinoza-tweet-deuda-afps_202312">tweet</a> del economista Gabriel Espinoza, incluso habiendo esquivado lo peor de la pandemia, el &#250;ltimo gobierno del MAS hasta ahora ha vendido deuda a las AFPs por la enorme suma de 9,715 millones de bolivianos (poco m&#225;s de $1,400m). En otras palabras, est&#225;n tomando pr&#233;stamos de los planes de pensiones de la gente a una escala casi dos veces mayor que la ex Presidente &#193;&#241;ez durante su gesti&#243;n en 2020. Esto parece poner al Presidente Arce en l&#237;nea directa con la Uni&#243;n Democr&#225;tica y Popular (UDP), el partido pol&#237;tico que llev&#243; a Bolivia de una inflaci&#243;n severa a la hiperinflaci&#243;n en 1985. El problema subyacente, como indica Pacheco, es que el gasto p&#250;blico, cuando es mal gestionado, puede catapultar la deuda hasta magnitudes b&#233;licas. Pero el caso es que vivimos en tiempos de desd&#233;n generalizado por la alternativa, ya sea que se trate de disciplina fiscal, inversi&#243;n extranjera, el capitalismo en s&#237; &#8212; lo que sea. El desd&#233;n es especialmente fuerte en Am&#233;rica Latina, pero el resto del mundo moderno no es ajeno a &#233;l. As&#237; que pienso que solo puede haber una actitud que adoptar: averiguar si es que est&#225; o no justificado. Por supuesto, esto no es para condescender a nadie; mi opini&#243;n es que estamos todos bastante perdidos al respecto. Por eso, durante los tres siguientes posts, voy a abordar la alternativa tal como se conoce actualmente en Am&#233;rica Latina, como &#8220;neoliberalismo&#8221;, desde el punto de vista de Bolivia, el punto de vista de los marxistas y el punto de vista de los propios neoliberales. La premisa de este plan es por supuesto el contraste: el &#250;nico camino hacia una opini&#243;n informada. Entonces, para empezar, lo que sigue es mi rese&#241;a de la apreciaci&#243;n de Pacheco sobre las infames reformas &#8220;neoliberales&#8221; en Bolivia.</p><h3>Primero un breve resumen</h3><p><em>Pol&#237;ticas de crecimiento en democracia: Bolivia, crecimiento econ&#243;mico y bienestar 1980-2006 </em>es una evaluaci&#243;n econ&#243;mica de dos paquetes de reforma estructural implementados en Bolivia entre 1985-97, primero con Estenssoro y luego con S&#225;nchez de Lozada. Estos dos ex presidentes fueron ambos militantes del Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario (MNR), posiblemente el partido pol&#237;tico m&#225;s notable en la historia Boliviana moderna, al menos hasta el 2003 y la &#8220;crisis del sistema de partidos&#8221;, como la llama Pacheco. Su libro tiene cinco cap&#237;tulos, el primero dibuja un cuadro de la econom&#237;a Boliviana, el segundo describe las reformas como tal y los siguientes tres eval&#250;an su impacto en los aspectos macroecon&#243;mico, social y pol&#237;tico econ&#243;mico. Dado que el alcance del libro abarca el periodo 1980-2006, Pacheco cubre no solo las reformas, sino tambi&#233;n la severa crisis que las motiv&#243; as&#237; como una peque&#241;a parte de lo que vino despu&#233;s. Aunque su postura es expl&#237;citamente pro reformismo, &#233;l no presenta en absoluto una visi&#243;n solo alentadora. Para tristeza de cualquier lector o lectora, al final dice: &#8220;se quiso, pero no se pudo&#8221;.</p><p>Pacheco naci&#243; en La Paz, Bolivia, estudi&#243; econom&#237;a a fines de los 1970s en la UMSA y en los 1990s en CIDES-UMSA, una rama de estudios de posgrado. Su tesis doctoral, todav&#237;a in&#233;dita, trata de los procesos de crecimiento y desarrollo en Bolivia entre los siglos 19 y 21. Ha sido profesor de econom&#237;a y ciencias pol&#237;ticas en la UMSA por 30 a&#241;os, en los 1980s trabaj&#243; en el Ministerio de Miner&#237;a, luego en el Instituto de Investigaciones Econ&#243;micas (<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216195143/https://www.umsa.bo/institutos-umsa/-/asset_publisher/1pMoOCPnVT2d/content/instituto-de-investigaciones-economicas">IIE</a>) de la UMSA y en los 1990s trabaj&#243; en el banco central de Bolivia, el <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216195424/https://www.bcb.gob.bo/">BCB</a>. Tambi&#233;n fue investigador en el Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo Laboral y Agrario (<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216195642/http://cedla.org/">CEDLA</a>) entre 1994-96 y entre 1996-2005 lo fue en la <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231214154722/https%3A%2F%2Ffundacion-milenio.org%2F">Fundaci&#243;n Milenio</a>, instituci&#243;n que luego dirigi&#243; hasta 2017. Por su cuenta y en colaboraci&#243;n, ha publicado hasta ahora unos doce libros, incluyendo un cap&#237;tulo de <em>Un siglo de econom&#237;a en Bolivia 1900-2015</em>, la m&#225;s reciente historia econ&#243;mica del pa&#237;s, publicada en dos vol&#250;menes en 2017. El libro que rese&#241;o aqu&#237; es el s&#233;ptimo que escribi&#243; y he usado la primera edici&#243;n, de 2008.</p><h3>El libro en cuesti&#243;n</h3><p>La tesis de Pacheco es que las reformas llevadas a cabo en el periodo 1985-97 &#8220;significaron una modernizaci&#243;n econ&#243;mica e institucional&#8221; para Bolivia en un momento de &#8220;agotamiento del modelo [de gobierno] estatista y proteccionista&#8221;. Si bien fue detonada por la crisis de la miner&#237;a, dice, la primera hiperinflaci&#243;n de Bolivia hasta la fecha se explica de hecho por este agotamiento, una herencia colonial que colaps&#243; entre 1980-85 debido al gasto p&#250;blico excesivo. El desglose de Pacheco de las verdaderas causas de la hiperinflaci&#243;n: 1) empresas p&#250;blicas no lucrativas (YPFB, ENTEL, COMIBOL, ENDE, ENFE, LAB); 2) un n&#250;mero demasiado elevado de trabajadores en el aparato de estado (245,000 en aquel momento; seg&#250;n Beatriz Muriel, economista de <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216201553/https://www.inesad.edu.bo/2020/02/12/el-aparato-estatal-tiene-526-mil-funcionarios-por-ano-crece-10/">INESAD</a>, hab&#237;a 500,000 en 2020); 3) volatilidad inherente a una econom&#237;a demasiado dependiente de las materias primas; y 4) &#8220;monetizaci&#243;n del d&#233;ficit&#8221; por un banco central que no era independiente, sino que estaba controlado desde el poder ejecutivo. Pacheco dice que en consecuencia el d&#233;ficit de 1984, 25.4% del PIB (9.7% en 2021, seg&#250;n el <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216202638/https://fundacion-milenio.org/informe-de-milenio-sobre-la-economia-de-bolivia-2021-no-43/">informe</a> Milenio), era &#8220;el m&#225;s alto desde 1950&#8221; y que entre 1982-85 se registr&#243; un total de 1,216 protestas.</p><p>Seg&#250;n Pacheco, las reformas que atendieron estos problemas, divididas en dos &#8220;generaciones&#8221; (1985-89 y 1993-97), buscaban primero estabilizar la econom&#237;a y luego modernizarla. En principio, dice que se aument&#243; el aporte a las reservas nacionales; la recaudaci&#243;n tributaria se simplific&#243; y descentraliz&#243;; se impuso que el poder ejecutivo haga aprobar sus presupuestos antes de ejecutarlos; se liberaron las tasas de inter&#233;s y se disminuyeron los aranceles de importaci&#243;n; se suprimi&#243; la fijaci&#243;n de precios; una nueva moneda, el boliviano, fue creada; y se estableci&#243; un mecanismo para guiar el tipo de cambio, llamado &#8220;bols&#237;n&#8221;. Para limitar el gasto p&#250;blico, 25,000 personas fueron sacadas de la planilla del estado. Pacheco dice que fue en este punto, hacia finales de 1985, que el precio del esta&#241;o cay&#243; en 52.2%, as&#237; que otros 18,000 empleados de la empresa minera estatal de Bolivia, COMIBOL, tuvieron que ser despedidos, si bien con una indemnizaci&#243;n. Dentro de todo, Pacheco dice que &#8220;por primera vez en siete a&#241;os el desempe&#241;o de la econom&#237;a fue positivo&#8221;, con un crecimiento promedio del PIB de 3.1% entre 1987-89.</p><p>El segundo paquete de reformas, tambi&#233;n controversial, buscaba reforzar al primero, que a inicios de los 1990s hab&#237;a comenzado a estancarse. En este caso, una nueva <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216204445/https://www.cervantesvirtual.com/portales/constituciones_hispanoamericanas/obra/constitucion-politica-del-estado-de-bolivia-del-6-de-febero-de-1995/">constituci&#243;n</a> fue redactada en 1994 y varias leyes para una reforma judicial a gran escala fueron aprobadas. Pacheco dice la independencia del banco central finalmente fue impuesta (ley <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216204839/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1670.xhtml">1670</a>); el sistema de pensiones (ley <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216205031/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1732.xhtml">1732</a>) y el de educaci&#243;n (ley <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216205147/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1565.xhtml">1565</a>) fueron reformados; se crearon programas de seguro m&#233;dico (ley <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216205317/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-2426.xhtml">2426</a> y otras); se descentraliz&#243; el control gubernamental (leyes <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216205445/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1551.xhtml">1551</a> y <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216205557/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1654.xhtml">1654</a>); las empresas p&#250;blicas que generaban d&#233;ficit fueron privatizadas (o &#8220;capitalizadas&#8221;, en el tenor de la ley <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216205810/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1544.xhtml">1544</a>); y para regular a estas empresas una nueva entidad, el sistema de regulaci&#243;n sectorial (SIRESE), fue creada (ley <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216210138/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1600.xhtml">1600</a>). Dato interesante, aunque por esto se agradece habitualmente a la constituci&#243;n de 2009, Pacheco dice que la &#8220;pluriculturalidad y multietnicidad del pa&#237;s&#8221; fueron primero planteadas por la constituci&#243;n de 1995. M&#225;s a&#250;n, la inversi&#243;n extranjera directa subi&#243; de 2.5% a 12.2% del PIB entre 1994-99, lo que Pacheco dice que signific&#243; mayores reservas nacionales y un sector de hidrocarburos m&#225;s din&#225;mico.</p><p>Pero los obst&#225;culos eran muchos y demasiado duros. En conjunto, entre 1980-2006, quince a&#241;os fueron de recesi&#243;n o crecimiento bajo y doce fueron solo de crecimiento moderado. Citando causas adicionales de este bajo ritmo de progreso, Pacheco dice que varios shocks externos hicieron que la deuda externa fuera menos indulgente, por ejemplo las crisis financieras Mexicana y Asi&#225;tica de los a&#241;os 1980s y 1990s, as&#237; como la burbuja del dot-com en 2001. Especialmente, sin embargo, hab&#237;a un decisivo obst&#225;culo interno: la distribuci&#243;n desigual de riqueza y educaci&#243;n. Esto concentr&#243; la mayor parte del cambio en las ciudades. Entre 1976-2001, dice, el cambio promedio en la atenci&#243;n de necesidades b&#225;sicas insatisfechas fue de 27.3% en las ciudades pero solo de 7.7% en &#225;reas rurales. Seg&#250;n Pacheco, esto caus&#243; un descontento que, sumado a un <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221004144106/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/08/world/lingering-feud-with-chile-threatens-bolivia-s-pipeline-plan.html">acuerdo</a> de exportaci&#243;n para transportar gas natural por Chile (2002), fue atizado por la &#233;lite de izquierda para desenterrar la vieja desconfianza en el reformismo.</p><h3>Mi momentario</h3><p>El conocimiento de Pacheco sobre las reformas de 1985-97 en Bolivia presenta varios datos con los que nadie puede disentir, sea cual sea su l&#237;nea pol&#237;tica. Donde las cosas se ponen m&#225;s complicadas es en el hecho de que Pacheco no da tanto peso al <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231217012912/https://www.jornada.com.mx/2003/10/08/035n1mun.php?origen=mundo.php&amp;fly=">rechazo</a> de S&#225;nchez de Lozada a discutir la exportaci&#243;n de gas con la poblaci&#243;n en general. Seg&#250;n el concepto de Pacheco de inversi&#243;n privada, que no es ingenuo, el acuerdo era potencialmente beneficioso para el pa&#237;s. Para &#233;l, el problema fue m&#225;s bien la llegada de Morales a la presidencia porque, dice, signific&#243; &#8220;el desmantelamiento de las reformas&#8221;. Ahora bien, quien se apure mucho a discrepar con esa opini&#243;n, es probable que no haga nada con ella, aparte de cambiar el nombre del culpable y revertir la acusaci&#243;n. Si a eso llaman tener una l&#237;nea pol&#237;tica, adelante. Para el resto, qu&#233; opciones hay?</p><p>Una respuesta que da Pacheco es simple, lo que no significa que sea f&#225;cil: la desigualdad es un problema ahora como lo fue en el periodo reformista. Eso no significa exactamente lo mismo hoy que en aquel entonces, y la clase media ciertamente ha crecido, pero hay todav&#237;a demasiadas personas en pobreza y sin educaci&#243;n. Eso ha impedido que la ciudadan&#237;a en su conjunto vea el beneficio de las reformas y empuja a grupos grandes, aun hoy en d&#237;a, a votar en su contra. El anzuelo racialista tambi&#233;n resuena profundamente en este escenario porque es la &#250;ltima moda en el discurso pol&#237;tico, pero fundamentalmente porque el electorado ha cambiado sin las actualizaciones necesarias para que todo el mundo tenga una sensaci&#243;n de mejora. El problema, como dice Pacheco, es que las reformas &#8220;se producen lentamente y en el largo plazo&#8221;. Si se confunde enojo con libertad, simplemente nunca van a llegar. Por otro lado, y aunque la pol&#237;tica racialista diga lo contrario, la libertad por suerte no es un privilegio de clase. Antes de hacerse tangible en el gobierno y la sociedad, y precisamente para que ello suceda, es primero algo que cada quien debe construir por su cuenta. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><blockquote><h4>Reference</h4><p><em>The <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240122151531/https://repositorio.umsa.bo/bitstream/handle/123456789/19006/Pacheco.PDF?sequence=6&amp;isAllowed=y">edition</a> I used for this review.</em></p><p><em>Last updated on 31 January 2024.</em></p></blockquote>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Power and massacre in El Alto: The Alteño unionist mafia - Abraham Delgado M.]]></title><description><![CDATA[#BookReview #ElAlto]]></description><link>https://erblog.net/p/ad-mancillas-power-and-massacre-in</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://erblog.net/p/ad-mancillas-power-and-massacre-in</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[ER]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 31 Oct 2021 10:34:03 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cCR2!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1bb80e37-dadf-4775-80c2-bb398275af1b_2000x2000.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<blockquote><h4>This review can be read in:</h4><p><em>English</em></p><p><em>Fran&#231;ais</em></p><p><em>Espa&#241;ol</em></p></blockquote><h1>English</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cCR2!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1bb80e37-dadf-4775-80c2-bb398275af1b_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cCR2!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1bb80e37-dadf-4775-80c2-bb398275af1b_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cCR2!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1bb80e37-dadf-4775-80c2-bb398275af1b_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cCR2!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1bb80e37-dadf-4775-80c2-bb398275af1b_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cCR2!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1bb80e37-dadf-4775-80c2-bb398275af1b_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div 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stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>In his book, Mancilla says the word massacre &#8220;should not be reduced only to an armed military or police assault&#8221;, but to &#8220;all forms of slaughter in which the victims are defenseless people&#8221;. That way, he argues, it becomes possible to target the politicized use of protests and to single out protesters when they too commit abuses. Unfortunately, then the proviso kicks in that it can get nonsensical to determine just what would not be political about a protest. But Mancilla&#8217;s point of view is still remarkable, especially at a time when, in dealing with our own history of violence, a massacre is only to be seen as an auction of blame, which of course solves nothing. Meanwhile, the so-called Sacaba and Senkata massacres, occurred in November 2019, are still not well understood. They&#8217;re hard at work being turned into a watchword of sorts &#8212; &#8220;November in the memory&#8221; &#8212; but it remains to be seen who really wants to look them in the eye. One thing is certain: these massacres have changed the way in which we think about repression. And denying them is pointless, but to think they are simple to interpret or that they point fingers in only one direction is even more ludicrous. The following is my review of Mancilla&#8217;s research on a previous, less renowned massacre. Comparing is always a good way to rethink definitions.</p><h4>First a little overview</h4><p><em>Power and massacre in El Alto: The Alte&#241;o unionist mafia</em> is a work of investigative journalism seeking the real motive behind El Alto&#8217;s City Hall massacre of 17 February 2016. From chapters one to three it gives historical context on how El Alto achieved municipal autonomy, how the Public University of El Alto (UPEA) achieved its own autonomy, and how these two milestones played a decisive role in the ousting of ex President Gonzalo S&#225;nchez de Lozada on 17 November 2003. From chapters four to eight it does a detailed review of the assault of El Alto&#8217;s City Hall and the unionist background to this episode, with hypotheses about who orchestrated it and what may have motivated them. For these hypotheses, Mancilla makes extensive use of primary evidence, personal testimonies and press reports. Thus his proposal, that the crisis of unionism in El Alto can be read as the outbreak of a &#8220;mafia&#8221;, is undoubtedly harsh, but ultimately convincing.</p><p>Mancilla was born in Inquisivi, a province in the southeast of La Paz, Bolivia, located some 250km away from the city. Since 1998 he studied business administration at UMSA, in La Paz, then in 2009 he started studying law at UPEA, in El Alto, and he is currently doing a master&#8217;s at CIDES-UMSA, a graduate branch of UMSA focused on development studies. Mancilla says he was a frontline activist in UPEA between 2000-08. He even claims to be a co-founder of this university and that he helped bring it to the rank of an autonomous institution. Apart from a first affiliation to the Movimiento Ind&#237;gena Pachakuti (MIP), a political party founded by Felipe Quispe (alias El Mallku), Mancilla says he has received other invitations to start a political career, but turned them down. His only concern is political theory, he says, and he prefers to devote his time to write books on the subject. He does not currently subscribe to any political party, although one of his last books deals precisely with the deceased MIP leader. He can be found signing alternatively as A. D. Mancilla, Abraham D. Mancilla or Abraham Delgado Mancilla, he has written four books and edited three more so far, the one I review is the second he wrote and here I used the first edition, from 2016.</p><h4>The book in question</h4><p>Mancilla&#8217;s thesis is that Alte&#241;o unionism suffered a degeneration between 1990-2016 due to the abandonment of the ayllu philosophy: &#8220;the community before personal interests&#8221;. He says that despite an admirable start, Alte&#241;o unionism encountered influences that have &#8220;contaminated&#8221; its &#8220;Aymaraness&#8221; during the governments of the former Presidents S&#225;nchez de Lozada (1993-97, 2002-3) and Morales (2006-19), both of which ended with these heads of state fleeing the country. To make his argument, Mancilla reviews the history of the city of El Alto and divides it into two periods, a &#8220;constitutive stage&#8221; (1957-85) and another stage of &#8220;union d&#233;b&#226;cle&#8221; (2000-16). The first period covers the struggle to create a federation of neighborhood councils in El Alto, which advanced little by little until municipal autonomy was obtained in 1984. The second begins with similar efforts, this time for the autonomy of the UPEA (2000-03), but it declines with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolivian_gas_conflict">Gas War</a> (2003), which Mancilla prefers to call a massacre, and with the arrival of a cruel union leader, Braulio Rocha (alias El Alto&#8217;s Godfather).</p><p>Mancilla says that Rocha began his career by importing &#8220;chuto&#8221; (unregistered) vehicles, but over time established connections. According to one of Mancilla&#8217;s informants, he was Peruvian and fled his country on murder charges. The informant says he started out being financed by a businessman named Robin Joffr&#233;, and she says she has documents to prove it, although these do not appear enclosed in Mancilla&#8217;s book. Joffr&#233; is known for having owned several dubious companies (TREBOL, CLISA, COLINA) that received millionaire contracts with El Alto&#8217;s City Hall. As Rocha&#8217;s network grew, he took control of public entities. He was also accused of leading the Federation of Gremiales for more than fifteen years, even though the term limit is only two years &#8212; he extended his time in office sevenfold. The same informant reports that Rocha &#8220;thinks he is the owner of El Alto&#8221; and even &#8220;treats President Evo badly&#8221;. Another informant says that Rocha and his inner circle &#8220;do not let themselves be seen&#8221;, &#8220;they are very well organized&#8221; and &#8220;their work is constant&#8221;.</p><p>Mancilla asks himself why this &#8220;moral decadence&#8221; has come to occur at the very heart of the unions he admires. Although he shares Edgar Cala&#8217;s <a href="https://elresenista.substack.com/p/edgar-calas-liberal-or-communal-citizenship">version</a> of the &#8220;neoliberal&#8221; evil, he thinks Rocha&#8217;s rise began in earnest during the MAS government, thanks to municipal law 177 (2006), which mandated that 50% of the &#8220;patents&#8221; collected from retail merchants must go directly to the coffers of the Gremiales. Mancilla says that any complaint about this injustice was silenced with violence because the business consisted precisely in collecting &#8220;taxes in the style of the common mafias&#8221;. But in 2015, with Mayor Edgar Patana&#8217;s tenure about to end, it was denounced that this tribute had reached three million bolivianos (some $400,000) annually and that in the last ten years it was not known where all this money had gone. Because of this Patana lost the next elections (2015) and Soledad Chapet&#243;n, the new mayoress, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231215151406/https://www.elaltodigital.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ley_municipal_291_pago_patentes_ciudad_el_alto.pdf">abolished</a> municipal law 177.</p><p>Rocha Inc. thus lost their main source of revenue and their response was to organize a march &#8220;in defense of public and free education&#8221; for 17 February 2016. Crucially, the march was to reach the City Hall building along its route. Although City Hall officials requested the police to guard their premises a full two days before the announced date, the police did not arrive at the site until noon, reportedly because they were ordered not to do so. By then a fire had broken out, causing officials to flee through the building&#8217;s roof. Six people were killed and 23 were injured. Six days later, journalist Amalia Pando received a letter from officials of the City Hall explaining that Dr Juan Laura, the lawyer investigating the corruption cases from Patana&#8217;s administration, had died from a blow to the back of the head that broke his skull, and not from suffocation, as indicated by the forensic doctor. The fire had been set to cover up the murder and burn the investigation files, according to Mancilla.</p><h4>My commentary</h4><p>Mancilla believes the connection between this assault and the MAS government lies in the official statements made after the event. First, he says, was the &#8220;deliberate omission&#8221;: the vice-minister of government, Marcelo El&#237;o, saying that there was no assault but rather a &#8220;self-assault&#8221;. Failing that, the &#8220;soft version of solidarity and condolences charging some suspects&#8221;: the preventive detention of Rocha the following day. Mancilla may have a point on this, although the lack of more compelling evidence is unfortunate. A protest is simply much harder to hold accountable than a single person. Still, as Mancilla points out, Morales&#8217; statement did not contradict El&#237;o&#8217;s, but rather added that the whole ordeal was meant to weaken his government in view of the upcoming referendum of 21 February. (The referendum, as we know, is where Morales intended to pitch the idea of an umpteenth term for himself). Working in tandem, he and El&#237;o did remember to send their condolences to the grieving relatives, of course.</p><p>According to Mancilla, this is a technique to overlap &#8220;two ways of interpreting the facts&#8221; by asking, right in the middle of six funerals, if this was really an assault and not a self-assault. In other words, that the fire may have been staged by City Hall officials themselves. And of course, between the lines, that Rocha was compromised but his associates are clean, whoever they are, because this is the inevitable counterpart to the self-assault version. It is interesting to note that Rocha, who previously boasted of treating the president badly, was eventually reminded of who&#8217;s in charge and who isn&#8217;t. Perhaps Rocha felt all this more than anyone else. In 2015, he had famously <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216154650/http://www.elalteno.com.bo/ciudad/20200713/fallece-braulio-rocha-maximo-dirigente-gremial-de-el-alto">threatened</a> Mayoress Chapet&#243;n like a true Corleone, telling her: &#8220;I&#8217;m going to be your nightmare for the rest of your life&#8221;. Poor Rocha. He couldn&#8217;t keep his promise because in 2020 he died of diabetes. Too bad he is the only one who was sick, because aside from the deaths, which is probably sacrilege to say, it turns out Rocha wasn&#8217;t Corleone after all. The real Godfather is still free &#8212; for now. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h1>Fran&#231;ais</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!svks!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82502024-2aa8-4f33-a9ec-5ab6d8f71065_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!svks!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82502024-2aa8-4f33-a9ec-5ab6d8f71065_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!svks!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82502024-2aa8-4f33-a9ec-5ab6d8f71065_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!svks!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82502024-2aa8-4f33-a9ec-5ab6d8f71065_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!svks!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82502024-2aa8-4f33-a9ec-5ab6d8f71065_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!svks!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82502024-2aa8-4f33-a9ec-5ab6d8f71065_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/82502024-2aa8-4f33-a9ec-5ab6d8f71065_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:304807,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!svks!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82502024-2aa8-4f33-a9ec-5ab6d8f71065_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!svks!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82502024-2aa8-4f33-a9ec-5ab6d8f71065_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!svks!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82502024-2aa8-4f33-a9ec-5ab6d8f71065_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!svks!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82502024-2aa8-4f33-a9ec-5ab6d8f71065_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Dans son livre, Mancilla dit que le mot massacre &#8220;ne doit pas &#234;tre r&#233;duit uniquement &#224; une attaque militaire ou polici&#232;re arm&#233;e&#8221;, mais &#224; &#8220;toutes formes de carnage dont les victimes sont des personnes sans d&#233;fense&#8221;. De cette fa&#231;on, soutient-il, il devient possible de cibler l&#8217;usage politis&#233; des protestations et singulariser protestataires lorsqu&#8217;ils commettent ils aussi des abus. H&#233;las, puis la provision entre en action qu&#8217;il peut devenir absurde de d&#233;terminer ce qui ne serait pas politique au sujet d&#8217;une protestation. Mais le point de vue de Mancilla reste remarquable, surtout &#224; une &#233;poque o&#249;, en traitant avec notre propre histoire de violence, un massacre n&#8217;est qu&#8217;a &#234;tre vu comme une vente aux ench&#232;res de la culpabilit&#233;, ce qui bien s&#251;r ne r&#233;sout rien. Entre-temps, les soi-disant massacres de Sacaba et Senkata, survenus &#224; Novembre 2019, ne sont pas encore bien compris. Ils sont en plein travail en &#233;tant transform&#233;s en une sorte de consigne &#8212; &#8220;Novembre dans la m&#233;moire&#8221; &#8212; mais il reste &#224; voir qui veut vraiment les regarder dans les yeux. Une chose est s&#251;re: ces massacres ont chang&#233; la fa&#231;on dont nous pensons la r&#233;pression. Et les nier ne sert &#224; rien, mais penser qu&#8217;ils sont simples &#224; interpr&#233;ter ou qu&#8217;ils pointent du doigt dans une seule direction est encore plus ridicule. Ce qui suit est ma revue de la recherche de Mancilla sur un ant&#233;rieur, moins renomm&#233; massacre. Comparer est toujours une bonne fa&#231;on de repenser des d&#233;finitions.</p><h4>D&#8217;abord un bref r&#233;sum&#233;</h4><p><em>Pouvoir et massacre &#224; El Alto: La mafia syndicale d&#8217;El Alto</em> est un travail de journalisme d&#8217;investigation &#224; la recherche du v&#233;ritable objectif derri&#232;re le massacre de la Mairie d&#8217;El Alto le 17 F&#233;vrier 2016. Des chapitres un &#224; trois il donne un contexte historique sur la mani&#232;re dont El Alto a obtenu l&#8217;autonomie municipale, dont l&#8217;Universit&#233; Publique d&#8217;El Alto (UPEA) a obtenu sa propre autonomie et comment ces deux jalons ont jou&#233; un r&#244;le d&#233;cisif dans l&#8217;&#233;viction de l&#8217;ex Pr&#233;sident Gonzalo S&#225;nchez de Lozada le 17 Novembre 2003. Dans les chapitres quatre &#224; huit il examine en d&#233;tail l&#8217;assaut de la Mairie d&#8217;El Alto et le contexte syndical de cet &#233;pisode, avec des hypoth&#232;ses sur les personnes qui l&#8217;ont orchestr&#233; et ce qui peut les avoir motiv&#233;s. Pour ces hypoth&#232;ses, Mancilla fait largement appel aux sources primaires, t&#233;moignages personnels et rapports de presse. Ainsi sa proposition, que la crise du syndicalisme &#224; El Alto peut &#234;tre lue comme l&#8217;&#233;closion d&#8217;une &#8220;mafia&#8221;, est sans doute dure, mais finalement convaincante.</p><p>Mancilla est n&#233;e &#224; Inquisivi, une province situ&#233;e au sud-est de La Paz, Bolivie, &#224; quelque 250km de la cit&#233;. Depuis 1998 il a &#233;tudi&#233; administration des affaires &#224; l&#8217;UMSA, &#224; La Paz, puis en 2009 il a commenc&#233; &#224; &#233;tudier le droit &#224; l&#8217;UPEA, &#224; El Alto, et il fait actuellement un master au CIDES-UMSA, une branche d&#8217;&#233;tudes sup&#233;rieures de l&#8217;UMSA sp&#233;cialis&#233;e dans les &#233;tudes de d&#233;veloppement. Mancilla dit qu&#8217;il &#233;tait un activiste de premi&#232;re ligne &#224; l&#8217;UPEA entre 2000-08. Il affirme m&#234;me &#234;tre un co-fondateur de cette universit&#233; et l&#8217;avoir &#233;galement aid&#233; &#224; obtenir le statut d&#8217;institution autonome. En dehors d&#8217;une affiliation au Movimiento Ind&#237;gena Pachakuti (MIP), un parti polotique fond&#233; par Felipe Quispe (alias El Mallku), Mancilla dit qu&#8217;il a re&#231;u des autres invitations &#224; d&#233;marrer une carri&#232;re politique, mais les a refus&#233;es. Sa seule pr&#233;occupation est la th&#233;orie politique, dit-il, et il pr&#233;f&#232;re consacrer son temps &#224; &#233;crire des livres sur le sujet. Il n&#8217;adh&#232;re actuellement &#224; aucun parti, bien que l&#8217;un de ses derniers livres traite juste du d&#233;funt leader du MIP. Il peut &#234;tre trouv&#233; signant alternativement comme A. D. Mancilla, Abraham D. Mancilla ou Abraham Delgado Mancilla, a &#233;crit quatre livres et en a &#233;dit&#233; trois autres jusqu&#8217;alors, celui que je mets en revue est le deuxi&#232;me qu&#8217;il a &#233;crit et j&#8217;ai utilis&#233; ici la premi&#232;re &#233;dition, de 2016.</p><h4>Le livre en question</h4><p>La th&#232;se de Mancilla est que le syndicalisme d&#8217;El Alto a subi une d&#233;g&#233;n&#233;ration entre 1990-2016 en raison de l&#8217;abandon de la philosophie de l&#8217;ayllu: &#8220;la communaut&#233; avant les int&#233;r&#234;ts personnels&#8221;. Il dit que malgr&#233; un d&#233;part admirable, le syndicalisme d&#8217;El Alto a rencontr&#233; des influences qui ont &#8220;contamin&#233;&#8221; son &#8220;Aymarit&#233;&#8221; pendant les gouvernements des anciens Pr&#233;sidents S&#225;nchez de Lozada (1993-97, 2002-3) et Morales (2006-19), qui se sont tous deux termin&#233;s avec ces chefs d&#8217;&#233;tat fuyant le pays. Pour argumenter, Mancilla passe l&#8217;histoire de la cit&#233; d&#8217;El Alto en revue et la divise en deux p&#233;riodes, une &#8220;&#233;tape constitutive&#8221; (1957-85) et une outre &#233;tape de &#8220;d&#233;b&#226;cle syndicale&#8221; (2000-16). La premi&#232;re p&#233;riode couvre la lutte pour cr&#233;er une f&#233;d&#233;ration de conseils de quartiers &#224; El Alto, qui a avanc&#233; peu &#224; peu jusqu&#8217;&#224; obtenir l&#8217;autonomie municipale en 1984. La deuxi&#232;me commence par des efforts similaires, cette fois-ci pour l&#8217;autonomie de l&#8217;UPEA (2000-03), mais d&#233;cline avec la <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolivian_gas_conflict">Guerre du Gaz</a> (2003), que Mancilla pr&#233;f&#232;re appeler un massacre, et avec l&#8217;arriv&#233;e d&#8217;un dirigeant syndical cruel, Braulio Rocha (alias Le Parrain d&#8217;El Alto).</p><p>Mancilla dit que Rocha a commenc&#233; sa carri&#232;re par importer des v&#233;hicules &#8220;chutos&#8221; (non enregistr&#233;s), mais avec le temps a &#233;tabli des connexions. Selon une informatrice de Mancilla, il &#233;tait P&#233;ruvien et a fui son pays sur des accusations de meurtre. L&#8217;informatrice dit qu&#8217;il a commenc&#233; par &#234;tre financ&#233; par un homme d&#8217;affaires appel&#233; Robin Joffr&#233;, et qu&#8217;elle a des documents pour le prouver, bien qu&#8217;ils ne figurent pas en annexe dans le livre de Mancilla. Joffr&#233; est connu pour avoir poss&#233;d&#233; plusieurs entreprises douteuses (TREBOL, CLISA, COLINA) qui ont re&#231;u des contrats millionnaires avec la Mairie d&#8217;El Alto. Comme le r&#233;seau de Rocha a cr&#251;, il a pris le contr&#244;le des entit&#233;s publiques. Il a &#233;galement &#233;t&#233; accus&#233; d&#8217;avoir dirig&#233; la F&#233;d&#233;ration des Gremiales pendant plus de quince ans, alors que la limite du mandat n&#8217;est que de deux ans &#8212; il a multipli&#233; par sept la dur&#233;e de son mandat. La m&#234;me informatrice rapporte que Rocha &#8220;pense qu&#8217;El Alto lui appartient&#8221; et m&#234;me qu&#8217;il &#8220;traite mal le Pr&#233;sident Evo&#8221;. Un autre informateur dit que Rocha et son cercle intime &#8220;ne se laissent pas voir&#8221;, &#8220;ils sont tr&#232;s bien organis&#233;s&#8221; et &#8220;leur travail est constant&#8221;.</p><p>Mancilla se demande pourquoi cette &#8220;d&#233;cadence morale&#8221; s&#8217;est produite au c&#339;ur m&#234;me des syndicats qu&#8217;il admire. Bien qu&#8217;il partage la <a href="https://elresenista.substack.com/p/edgar-calas-liberal-or-communal-citizenship">version</a> d&#8217;Edgar Cala du mal &#8220;n&#233;olib&#233;ral&#8221;, il pense que l&#8217;essor de Rocha a commenc&#233; s&#233;rieusement pendant le gouvernement du MAS, gr&#226;ce &#224; la loi municipale 177 (2006), qui stipule que 50% des &#8220;patentes&#8221; collect&#233;es aupr&#232;s des marchands au d&#233;tail doivent aller directement aux coffres des Gremiales. Mancilla dit que toute plainte sur cette injustice a &#233;t&#233; r&#233;duite au silence avec violence car l&#8217;affaire consistait pr&#233;cis&#233;ment &#224; collecter &#8220;des imp&#244;ts &#224; la mani&#232;re des mafias communes&#8221;. Mais en 2015, alors que le mandat du Maire Edgar Patana arrivait &#224; son terme, il a &#233;t&#233; denonc&#233; que cette taxe avait atteint trois millions de bolivianos (environ &#8364;375,000) par an et que depuis dix ans on ne savait pas o&#249; tout cet argent avait disparu. &#192; cause de cela Patana a perdu les &#233;lections suivantes (2015) et Soledad Chapet&#243;n, la nouvelle Mairesse, a <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231215151406/https://www.elaltodigital.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ley_municipal_291_pago_patentes_ciudad_el_alto.pdf">abrog&#233;</a> la loi municipale 177.</p><p>Rocha &amp; Cia. ont ainsi perdu leur principale source de revenus et leur r&#233;ponse a &#233;t&#233; d&#8217;organiser une marche &#8220;en d&#233;fense de l&#8217;&#233;ducation publique et gratuite&#8221; pour le 17 F&#233;vrier 2016. Crucialement, la marche devait arriver au b&#226;timent de la Mairie le long de sa route. Bien que les fonctionnaires de la Mairie ont demand&#233; &#224; la police de surveiller leurs installations deux jours pleins avant la date annonc&#233;e, la police n&#8217;est arriv&#233;e sur place qu&#8217;&#224; midi, apparemment parce qu&#8217;on lui avait ordonn&#233; de ne pas le faire. Jusque-l&#224; un incendie avait &#233;clatait, obligeant les fonctionnaires &#224; fuir par le toit du b&#226;timent. Six personnes ont &#233;t&#233; tu&#233;es et 23 bless&#233;es. Six jours plus tard, la journaliste Amalia Pando a re&#231;u une lettre de fonctionnaires de la Mairie expliquant que le Dr Juan Laura, l&#8217;avocat enqu&#234;tant sur des affaires de corruption dans l&#8217;administration Patana, est mort d&#8217;un coup &#224; l&#8217;arri&#232;re de la t&#234;te qui lui a bris&#233; le cr&#226;ne, et non d&#8217;une asphyxie, comme l&#8217;avait indiqu&#233; le m&#233;decin l&#233;giste. L&#8217;incendie avait &#233;t&#233; allum&#233; pour couvrir le meurtre et br&#251;ler les dossiers d&#8217;enqu&#234;te, selon Mancilla.</p><h4>Mon commentaire</h4><p>Mancilla croi que la connexion entre cet assaut et le gouvernement du MAS r&#233;side dans les d&#233;clarations officielles faites apr&#232;s l&#8217;&#233;v&#233;nement. D&#8217;abord, dit-il, il y a eu &#8220;l&#8217;omission d&#233;lib&#233;r&#233;e&#8221;: le vice-ministre du gouvernement, Marcelo El&#237;o, en disant qu&#8217;il n&#8217;y a pas eu d&#8217;assaut mais plut&#244;t un &#8220;auto-assaut&#8221;. &#192; defaut, la &#8220;version douce de solidarit&#233; et condol&#233;ances inculpant certains suspects&#8221;: la d&#233;tention pr&#233;ventive de Rocha le lendemain. Mancilla a peut-&#234;tre raison sur ce point, encore que l&#8217;absence de preuves plus convaincantes est regrettable. Une protestation est simplement beaucoup plus difficile de tenir responsable qu&#8217;une seule personne. N&#233;anmoins, comme l&#8217;indique Mancilla, la d&#233;claration de Morales n&#8217;a pas contredit celle d&#8217;El&#237;o, mais a plut&#244;t ajout&#233; que toute cette m&#233;saventure &#233;tait d&#233;stin&#233;e &#224; affaiblir son gouvernement avant le prochain r&#233;f&#233;rendum du 21 F&#233;vrier. (Le r&#233;f&#233;rendum, comme nous le savons, est l&#8217;endroit o&#249; Morales avait l&#8217;intention de lancer l&#8217;id&#233;e d&#8217;un &#233;ni&#232;me mandat pour lui-m&#234;me). Travaillant en tandem, El&#237;o et lui n&#8217;ont pas oubli&#233; d&#8217;envoyer leurs condol&#233;ances aux proches en deuil, bien s&#251;r.</p><p>Selon Mancilla, c&#8217;est une technique pour superposer &#8220;deux courants d&#8217;interpr&#233;tation des faits&#8221; en demandant, au plein milieu de six fun&#233;railles, s&#8217;il s&#8217;agissait vraiment d&#8217;un assaut et non d&#8217;un auto-assaut. Autrement dit, que l&#8217;incendie pourrait avoir &#233;t&#233; mis en sc&#232;ne par les fonctionnaires de la Mairie eux-m&#234;mes. Et bien s&#251;r, entre les lignes, que Rocha a &#233;t&#233; impliqu&#233; mais ses associ&#233;s sont en r&#232;gle, qui qu&#8217;ils soient, parce que c&#8217;est la contrepartie in&#233;vitable de la version de l&#8217;auto-assaut. Il est int&#233;ressant de noter que Rocha, qui s&#8217;&#233;tait auparavant vant&#233; de maltraiter le pr&#233;sident, a &#233;t&#233; finalement rappel&#233; de qui a le pouvoir et qui n&#8217;en a pas. Peut-&#234;tre que Rocha a ressenti tout cela plus que quiconque. En 2015, il avait fameusement <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216154650/http://www.elalteno.com.bo/ciudad/20200713/fallece-braulio-rocha-maximo-dirigente-gremial-de-el-alto">mena&#231;&#233;</a> la Mairesse Chapet&#243;n comme un vrai Corleone, en lui disant: &#8220;Je vais &#234;tre ton cauchemar pour le reste de ta vie&#8221;. Pauvre Rocha. Il n&#8217;a pas pu tenir sa promesse car en 2020 il est mort de diab&#232;te. Dommage qu&#8217;il ait &#233;t&#233; le seul &#224; &#234;tre malade, car en dehors des d&#233;c&#232;s, ce qui est probablement un sacril&#232;ge &#224; dire, il s&#8217;av&#232;re que Rocha n&#8217;&#233;tait pas Corleone apr&#232;s tout. Le vrai Parrain est toujours en libert&#233; &#8212; pour le moment. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h1>Espa&#241;ol</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wAhS!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F65d7a009-485c-4428-ac1c-7c50c8526bc8_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wAhS!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F65d7a009-485c-4428-ac1c-7c50c8526bc8_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wAhS!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F65d7a009-485c-4428-ac1c-7c50c8526bc8_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wAhS!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F65d7a009-485c-4428-ac1c-7c50c8526bc8_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wAhS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F65d7a009-485c-4428-ac1c-7c50c8526bc8_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wAhS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F65d7a009-485c-4428-ac1c-7c50c8526bc8_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/65d7a009-485c-4428-ac1c-7c50c8526bc8_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:328345,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wAhS!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F65d7a009-485c-4428-ac1c-7c50c8526bc8_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wAhS!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F65d7a009-485c-4428-ac1c-7c50c8526bc8_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wAhS!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F65d7a009-485c-4428-ac1c-7c50c8526bc8_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wAhS!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F65d7a009-485c-4428-ac1c-7c50c8526bc8_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>En su libro, Mancilla dice que la palabra masacre &#8220;no deber&#237;a reducirse solo a un asalto armado militar o policial&#8221;, sino a &#8220;toda forma de matanza en la que las v&#237;ctimas son personas indefensas&#8221;. De este modo, sostiene, se hace posible apuntar al uso politizado de protestas y singularizar protestantes cuando estos tambi&#233;n cometen abusos. Desafortunadamente, entonces entra en juego la salvedad de que puede volverse absurdo determinar exactamente qu&#233; no ser&#237;a pol&#237;tico acerca de una protesta. Pero el punto de vista de Mancilla sigue siendo destacable, especialmente en una &#233;poca en que, al lidiar con nuestra propia historia de violencia, una masacre solo ha de ser vista como una subasta de culpas, cosa que desde luego no resuelve nada. Mientras tanto, las llamadas masacres de Sacaba y Senkata, ocurridas en Noviembre 2019, todav&#237;a no son bien comprendidas. Est&#225;n en pleno trabajo siendo convertidas en una especie de consigna &#8212; &#8220;Noviembre en la memoria&#8221; &#8212; pero resta por ver qui&#233;n quiere realmente mirarlas a los ojos. Una cosa es segura: estas masacres han cambiado la forma en que pensamos la represi&#243;n. Y negarlas no tendr&#237;a sentido, pero pensar que son f&#225;ciles de interpretar o que apuntan el dedo en una sola direcci&#243;n es a&#250;n m&#225;s rid&#237;culo. Lo que sigue es mi rese&#241;a de la investigaci&#243;n de Mancilla sobre una anterior y menos renombrada masacre. Comparar es siempre una buena forma de repensar definiciones.</p><h4>Primero un breve resumen</h4><p><em>Poder y masacre en El Alto: La mafia sindical Alte&#241;a </em>es un trabajo de periodismo investigativo en busca del verdadero objetivo detr&#225;s de la masacre de la Alcald&#237;a de El Alto del 17 Febrero 2016. Del cap&#237;tulo uno al tres da un contexto hist&#243;rico sobre c&#243;mo El Alto logr&#243; la autonom&#237;a municipal, c&#243;mo la Universidad P&#250;blica de El Alto (UPEA) logr&#243; su propia autonom&#237;a y c&#243;mo estos dos hitos jugaron un papel decisivo en la expulsi&#243;n del ex Presidente Gonzalo S&#225;nchez de Lozada el 17 Noviembre 2003. Del cap&#237;tulo cuatro al ocho hace una revisi&#243;n detallada del asalto a la Alcald&#237;a de El Alto y el trasfondo sindical de este episodio, con hip&#243;tesis sobre qui&#233;nes lo orquestaron y qu&#233; podr&#237;a haberlos motivado. Para estas hip&#243;tesis, Mancilla hace uso extenso de evidencia primaria, testimonios personales y reportes de prensa. Por eso su propuesta, que la crisis del sindicalismo en El Alto puede leerse como el estallido de una &#8220;mafia&#8221;, es sin duda fuerte, pero a fin de cuentas convincente.</p><p>Mancilla naci&#243; en Inquisivi, provincia en el sudeste de La Paz, Bolivia, ubicada a unos 250km de la ciudad. Desde 1998 estudi&#243; administraci&#243;n de empresas en la UMSA, en La Paz, luego en 2009 empez&#243; a estudiar derecho en la UPEA, en El Alto, y actualmente est&#225; haciendo una maestr&#237;a en CIDES-UMSA, una rama de posgrado de la UMSA enfocada en estudios de desarrollo. Mancilla dice que fue un activista de primera l&#237;nea en la UPEA entre 2000-08. Incluso sostiene que fue un co-fundador de esta universidad y que ayud&#243; a que esta alcance el rango de instituci&#243;n aut&#243;noma. Aparte de una primera afiliaci&#243;n al Movimiento Ind&#237;gena Pachakuti (MIP), un partido pol&#237;tico fundado por Felipe Quispe (alias El Mallku), Mancilla dice haber recibido otras invitaciones para iniciar una carrera pol&#237;tica, pero que las rechaz&#243;. Su &#250;nica preocupaci&#243;n es la teor&#237;a pol&#237;tica, dice, y prefiere dedicar su tiempo a escribir libros al respecto. Actualmente no se suscribe a ning&#250;n partido, aunque uno de sus &#250;ltimos libros trata justamente del difunto l&#237;der del MIP. Se lo puede encontrar firmando alternativamente como A. D. Mancilla, Abrahama D. Mancilla o Abraham Delgado Mancilla, ha escrito cuatro libros y editado otros tres hasta ahora, el que rese&#241;o es el segundo de todos y aqu&#237; he usado la primera edici&#243;n, de 2016.</p><h4>El libro en cuesti&#243;n</h4><p>La tesis de Mancilla es que el sindicalismo Alte&#241;o sufri&#243; una degeneraci&#243;n entre 1990-2016 debido al abandono de la filosof&#237;a del ayllu: &#8220;la comunidad antes que los intereses personales&#8221;. Dice que a pesar de un arranque admirable, el sindicalismo Alte&#241;o encontr&#243; influencias que han &#8220;contaminado&#8221; su &#8220;Aymaridad&#8221; durante los gobiernos de los ex Presidentes S&#225;nchez de Lozada (1993-97, 2002-3) y Morales (2006-19), ambos concluidos con estos jefes de estado escapando del pa&#237;s. Para argumentar, Mancilla revisa la historia de la ciudad de El Alto y la divide en dos periodos, una &#8220;etapa constitutiva&#8221; (1957-85) y otra etapa de &#8220;d&#233;b&#226;cle sindical&#8221; (2000-16). El primer periodo abarca la lucha por crear una federaci&#243;n de juntas vecinales en El Alto, que avanz&#243; poco a poco hasta obtener la autonom&#237;a municipal en 1984. El segundo inicia con esfuerzos parecidos, esta vez por la autonom&#237;a de la UPEA (2000-03), pero decae con la <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolivian_gas_conflict">Guerra del Gas</a> (2003), que Mancilla prefiere llamar una masacre, y con la llegada de un cruel dirigente sindical, Braulio Rocha (alias El Padrino de El Alto).</p><p>Mancilla dice que Rocha empez&#243; su carrera importando veh&#237;culos &#8220;chutos&#8221; (no registrados), pero con el tiempo estableci&#243; conexiones. Seg&#250;n una informante de Mancilla, era Peruano y escap&#243; de su pa&#237;s acusado de asesinato. La informante dice que empez&#243; siendo financiado por un empresario llamado Robin Joffr&#233;, y que tiene documentos para probarlo, aunque estos no aparecen adjuntos en el libro de Mancilla. Joffr&#233; es conocido por haber sido due&#241;o de varias empresas dudosas (TREBOL, CLISA, COLINA) que recibieron contratos millonarios con la Alcald&#237;a de El Alto. A medida que la red de Rocha creci&#243;, se hizo con el control de entidades p&#250;blicas. Tambi&#233;n fue acusado de dirigir la Federaci&#243;n de Gremiales por m&#225;s de quince a&#241;os, a pesar de que el l&#237;mite del mandato es de solo dos a&#241;os &#8212; multiplic&#243; por siete la duraci&#243;n de su mandato. La misma informante dice que Rocha &#8220;se cree el due&#241;o de El Alto&#8221; y que incluso &#8220;trata feo al Presidente Evo&#8221;. Otro informante dice que Rocha y su c&#250;pula dirigencial &#8220;no se dejan ver&#8221;, &#8220;est&#225;n muy bien organizados&#8221; y &#8220;su trabajo es constante&#8221;.</p><p>Mancilla se pregunta por qu&#233; esta &#8220;decadencia moral&#8221; ha llegado a darse en el coraz&#243;n mismo de los sindicatos que admira. Aunque comparte la <a href="https://elresenista.substack.com/p/edgar-calas-liberal-or-communal-citizenship">versi&#243;n</a> de Edgar Cala sobre el mal &#8220;neoliberal&#8221;, piensa m&#225;s bien que el auge de Rocha comenz&#243; en serio durante el gobierno del MAS, gracias a la ley municipal 177 (2006), que ordenaba que 50% del cobro de &#8220;patentes&#8221; a los comerciantes minoristas deb&#237;a ir directamente a las arcas de los Gremiales. Mancilla dice que toda queja sobre esta injusticia fue acallada con violencia porque el negocio consist&#237;a justamente en cobrar &#8220;tributos al estilo de las mafias comunes&#8221;. Pero en 2015, con la gesti&#243;n del Alcalde Edgar Patana a punto de acabar, se denunci&#243; que este tributo hab&#237;a alcanzado los tres millones de bolivianos (unos $400,000) anuales y que en los &#250;ltimos diez a&#241;os no se sab&#237;a a d&#243;nde hab&#237;a ido todo este dinero. A causa de esto Patana perdi&#243; las elecciones siguientes (2015) y Soledad Chapet&#243;n, la nueva Alcaldesa, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231215151406/https://www.elaltodigital.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ley_municipal_291_pago_patentes_ciudad_el_alto.pdf">abrog&#243;</a> la ley municipal 177.</p><p>Rocha &amp; Cia. perdieron as&#237; su principal fuente de ingreso y su respuesta fue organizar una marcha &#8220;en defensa de la educaci&#243;n fiscal y gratuita&#8221; para el 17 Febrero 2016. Crucialmente, la marcha deb&#237;a llegar al edificio de la Alcald&#237;a a lo largo de su ruta. Aunque funcionarios de la Alcald&#237;a pidieron a la polic&#237;a que vigile sus instalaciones dos d&#237;as enteros antes de la fecha anunciada, la polic&#237;a no lleg&#243; al sitio sino hasta el medio d&#237;a, al parecer porque se le orden&#243; que no lo hiciera. Para entonces se hab&#237;a producido un incendio, haciendo que los funcionarios tengan que huir por el techo del edificio. Seis personas murieron y 23 resultaron heridas. Seis d&#237;as despu&#233;s, la periodista Amalia Pando recibi&#243; una carta de funcionarios de la Alcald&#237;a explicando que el Dr Juan Laura, el abogado que investigaba los casos de corrupci&#243;n de la gesti&#243;n de Patana, hab&#237;a muerto de un golpe en la nuca que le rompi&#243; el cr&#225;neo, y no por asfixia, como indic&#243; el m&#233;dico forense. El incendio hab&#237;a sido provocado para encubrir el asesinato y quemar los documentos de la investigaci&#243;n, seg&#250;n Mancilla.</p><h4>Mi comentario</h4><p>Mancilla cree que la conexi&#243;n entre este asalto y el gobierno del MAS reside en las declaraciones oficiales hechas tras el evento. Primero, dice, fue la &#8220;omisi&#243;n deliberada&#8221;: el viceministro de gobierno, Marcelo El&#237;o, diciendo que no hubo un asalto sino un &#8220;auto-asalto&#8221;. En su defecto, la &#8220;versi&#243;n suave de solidaridad y condolencia cargando a algunos sospechosos&#8221;: la detenci&#243;n preventiva de Rocha al d&#237;a siguiente. Puede que Mancilla tenga raz&#243;n en esto, pero la falta de pruebas m&#225;s contundentes es lamentable. Una protesta es simplemente mucho m&#225;s dif&#237;cil de hacer responsable que una sola persona. De todos modos, como indica Mancilla, la declaraci&#243;n de Morales no contradijo la de El&#237;o, sino m&#225;s bien a&#241;adi&#243; que toda esta desventura estaba pensada para debilitar a su gobierno de cara al pr&#243;ximo refer&#233;ndum de 21 Febrero. (El refer&#233;ndum, como sabemos, es donde Morales pretend&#237;a plantear la idea de un en&#233;simo mandato para s&#237; mismo). Trabajando en equipo, &#233;l y El&#237;o no olvidaron mandar sus condolencias a los parientes en duelo, claro.</p><p>Seg&#250;n Mancilla, esta es una t&#233;cnica para superponer &#8220;dos corrientes de interpretaci&#243;n de los hechos&#8221; al preguntar, justo en medio de seis funerales, si esto fue realmente un asalto y no un auto-asalto. En otras palabras, que el incendio podr&#237;a haber sido montado por los propios funcionarios de la Alcald&#237;a. Y claro, entre l&#237;neas, que Rocha fue implicado pero su socios est&#225;n en regla, quienquiera que sean, porque esta es la contraparte inevitable de la versi&#243;n del auto-asalto. Es interesante notar que a Rocha, que antes se jactaba de tratar mal al presidente, finalmente le recordaron qui&#233;n manda y qui&#233;n no. Seguramente Rocha sinti&#243; todo esto m&#225;s que nadie. En 2015, hab&#237;a famosamente <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216154650/http://www.elalteno.com.bo/ciudad/20200713/fallece-braulio-rocha-maximo-dirigente-gremial-de-el-alto">amenazado</a> a la Alcaldesa Chapet&#243;n como un verdadero Corleone, dici&#233;ndole: &#8220;Voy a ser tu pesadilla por el resto de tu vida&#8221;. Pobre Rocha. No pudo cumplir su promesa porque en 2020 se muri&#243; de diabetes. L&#225;stima que es el &#250;nico que estaba enfermo, porque aparte de las muertes, cosa que probablemente es un sacrilegio decir, resulta que Rocha no era Corleone despu&#233;s de todo. El verdadero Padrino sigue libre &#8212; por ahora. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><blockquote><h4>Reference</h4><p><em>The <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/poder-y-masacre-en-el-alto-la-mafia-sindical-altena/oclc/980875993&amp;referer=brief_results">edition</a> I used for this review.</em></p><p><em>Last updated on 31 January 2024.</em></p></blockquote>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Combat flags, worship flags: The king's wiphalas - by Vincent Nicolas]]></title><description><![CDATA[#BookReview #Betanzos #Potos&#237;]]></description><link>https://erblog.net/p/vincent-nicolas-combat-flags-worship</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://erblog.net/p/vincent-nicolas-combat-flags-worship</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[ER]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 17 Oct 2021 11:00:07 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qk9d!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04b9ed01-eabb-4f52-8744-37ed1b7a8bec_2000x2000.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<blockquote><h4>This review can be read in:</h4><p><em>English</em></p><p><em>Fran&#231;ais</em></p><p><em>Espa&#241;ol</em></p></blockquote><h1>English</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qk9d!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04b9ed01-eabb-4f52-8744-37ed1b7a8bec_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qk9d!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04b9ed01-eabb-4f52-8744-37ed1b7a8bec_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qk9d!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04b9ed01-eabb-4f52-8744-37ed1b7a8bec_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qk9d!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04b9ed01-eabb-4f52-8744-37ed1b7a8bec_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qk9d!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04b9ed01-eabb-4f52-8744-37ed1b7a8bec_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qk9d!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04b9ed01-eabb-4f52-8744-37ed1b7a8bec_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/04b9ed01-eabb-4f52-8744-37ed1b7a8bec_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:222359,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qk9d!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04b9ed01-eabb-4f52-8744-37ed1b7a8bec_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qk9d!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04b9ed01-eabb-4f52-8744-37ed1b7a8bec_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qk9d!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04b9ed01-eabb-4f52-8744-37ed1b7a8bec_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qk9d!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04b9ed01-eabb-4f52-8744-37ed1b7a8bec_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>What you can read above is Nicolas paraphrasing a 17-18th century chronicler, Bartolom&#233; Arz&#225;ns de Ors&#250;a y Vela, who witnessed the episode and wrote about it in his famous <em>History of the imperial city of Potos&#237;</em>. What Arz&#225;ns said is slightly different though, and luckily Nicolas quoted him too:</p><blockquote><p>Seeing the fierceness of this Indian a Spaniard, merchant, who knew him in this town, and seeing that those Indians would end up killing each other, he ordered the ensign to come with the flag, and hoisting it he told Agust&#237;n to venerate the royal flag and calm down. By then there were more than 20 Indians and others from other nations in his support, but the Spaniard&#8217;s prudence had solved it, for the Indian went to the flag and made <em>three of those bows that were made before the Inca kings.</em></p></blockquote><p>Judging by this quote (with my stress in italics at the end), Quespi didn&#8217;t bow thinking the inca was in fact before him, he just resorted to the same kind of reverence that would have been suitable in a precolonial, yet still monarchic context. Resorted to it in a manner of speaking, moreover, because by the early 1700s, roughly when the chronicle was written, neither Arz&#225;ns nor Quespi could have known what it was like to stand and bow before an actual Inca king. It is easy to forget that although much closer than us to precolonial times, they too lived in a world that was already different. In my opinion, Nicolas sort of shaded that detail with his paraphrasing, which ultimately causes Quespi to appear as a flag worshiper rather than a pragmatic reader of social protocols. Nicolas&#8217; intent was earnest, I reckon, but as the linguist John E. Joseph would put it, cases like this remind us that class is &#8220;a social construct of a highly ideological order&#8221;, one in which &#8220;we as analysts, rather than the members of the &#8216;classes&#8217; themselves, do most of the constructing&#8221;. With that being said, the following is my review of Nicolas&#8217; research on the history of a flag, which as we know is yet another highly ideological object.</p><h4>First a little overview</h4><p><em>Combat flags, worship flags: The king&#8217;s wiphalas</em> is a historical essay on the origin of a Bolivian flag, the wiphala, and how it came to be the emblem of today&#8217;s indigenist state. To this end the book links various scattered data, but is centered on the Feast of the Rosary that is celebrated every October in Betanzos, Potos&#237;. It has seventeen chapters and a conclusion which together make up a total of five parts. From chapters one to five it explains how the wiphala&#8217;s military and catholic roots reached the Spanish colonies; from six to nine it explains the evolution of the cult of the Virgin of the Rosary from the Battle of Lepanto until now; from ten to thirteen it tells how the &#8220;cacchas&#8221;, a guild of freelance miners, used the wiphala for their own purposes in the 18th century; and from fourteen to seventeen it tells how the Feast of the Rosary was celebrated during independence and the dawn of the republic. The conclusion puts all this to the task of explaining Bolivia&#8217;s 2019 conflicts. The essay is well documented and arguably aims at another wiphala scholar, Germ&#225;n Choquehuanca, whose &#8220;iconoclastic campaign&#8221; suppresses, says Nicolas, the multitude of meanings that the history of this flag embodies.</p><p>Nicolas was born in Belgium, he studied philosophy and anthropology at the Universit&#233; Livre de Bruxelles and did postgraduate studies at the <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125164936/http://www.pieb.org/fpieb_upieb.php">university</a> of the PIEB foundation and the EHESS in Paris. At the EHESS, his thesis advisor was professor Gilles Rivi&#232;res, a specialist in Andean anthropology, and he did his thesis on the Tinguipaya locality, in Potos&#237;. In 2015 this work was published in book form as <em>Los ayllus de Tinguipaya: Ensayos de historia a varias voces</em>. Nicolas first went to Bolivia in 1996 and has lived there until the present. He has taught at several universities in La Paz, Sucre and Oruro, he has been a researcher at PIEB since 2000 and was regional director of the Acci&#243;n Cultural Loyola (<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125165255/https://aclo.org.bo/">ACLO</a>) foundation, based in Potos&#237;, between 2009-11. Since 2019, he has been coordinator of the National Museum of Ethnography and Folklore (<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125165659/http://musef.org.bo/">MUSEF</a>). He is fluent in Quechua and Spanish, has so far published around six books and the one I review here was published in 2020 and is the last one he wrote as of this post.</p><h4>The book in question</h4><p>Nicolas states his thesis as follows: &#8220;I propose that to find the probable origin of wiphalas, we must look to the pageant of the royal flag and the King&#8217;s oath&#8221;. He says that this idea came to him from having found two similar yet mutually distant flags, the first when he attended a Whit Sunday in Manquiri, Potos&#237;, and the second in a painting of the Battle of Rocroi (1643) that put an end to Spanish hegemony in Europe. Both flags had the badge of the Dukes of Burgundy, the red cross of Saint Andrew, but not much else in common. To connect them, Nicolas goes back to the rise of the Spanish Empire, the defeat of the Sultan of Granada in 1492. He says that back then Saint Andrew and other saints were already being used as guardians of military campaigns in both Europe and America. Such was the case of Saint James the Apostle, but also the Virgin Mary in the Battle of Lepanto (1571), whose advocation of the Rosary was spread by the Dominicans in South America. Hence the name &#8220;Virgin of the Rosary&#8221;, as well as the military-religious tone in her festivity.</p><p>The Spanish victories were due to their famous infantry system, called &#8220;tercios&#8221;, which arrived in America under Charles V. But the king never arrived in person, so the weapons of the tercios, &#8220;very long pikes, swords and arquebuses&#8221;, had to revive his presence in ceremonial fashion. Nicolas says they worked as a &#8220;reminder&#8221;, but that time brought with it other layers that kept the ritual alive and submerged the explanation of its origin. The king&#8217;s oath would become especially strange in 1808, when Napoleon overthrew Ferdinand VII, he says, because America was so far from Castile that the news of the new king and those of his defeat arrived practically at the same time. The ensign and the crowd still celebrated their loyalty to Ferdinand VII that year in the imperial city of Potos&#237;, while authorities, more aware of Napoleon than were the plebians, secretly feared for their own future. Two years later, the virgins acquired yet another &#8220;role as protectors of armies&#8221;, only this time it was in the War of Independence.</p><p>Nicolas cites two other paintings prior to this war, one possibly showing a caccha revolt that occurred in 1751 and another by Melchor P&#233;rez de Holgu&#237;n, the classical colonial painter. Despite the undisputed economic relevance of the cacchas since the 17th century, the second painting, he says, shows an &#8220;idyllic&#8221; landscape where because the insurgents are Indians they only figure marginally. This complaint about the racism of colonial art is commonplace among some historians, and here Nicolas certainly adds to the echo, but he also throws in new data: he says that the weapons of the cacchas were &#8220;those of a Spanish tercio&#8221; and that their mindset was one of &#8220;unembarrassed appropriation of the symbols of colonial power&#8221;. So the royal flag persisted in time by being distorted, or as Nicolas would put it, by being &#8220;creatively reappropriated&#8221;. Interestingly, he says it retained its ethos against &#8220;heathens&#8221;, although the question of who were thus called and why became a far more cryptic and varied matter.</p><p>As Nicolas would have it, then, &#8220;the King&#8217;s wiphalas&#8221; ought to be discussed in plural because there were many of them. The need to invent a standard wiphala arose only after independence (1825). In the 1990s, Germ&#225;n Choquehuanca refined this process by arguing that wiphalas are prehispanic in origin, which according to Nicolas is not true, and in 2009 supreme decree <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125172828/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-DS-N241.xhtml">241</a> consolidated the standardization. Nicolas says this caused the &#8220;gradual disappearance of ancient wiphalas&#8221;, which matter to him because they speak of the &#8220;caccha mindset&#8221;.  He cites for example the case of Agust&#237;n Quespi, a famous caccha who appears in the accounts of the chronicler Arz&#225;ns. Arz&#225;ns says Quespi was generous with friends but brutal with those who went over his head. Apparently only the royal flag could calm his whims. And according to Nicolas, if even someone so fierce had a place in his chest for Spanish symbols, then it isn&#8217;t wise to underestimate the heritage of the Spanish Empire &#8220;even in those things we consider the most aboriginal&#8221;.</p><h4>My commentary</h4><p>Nicolas&#8217;s book has quotes from various ancient chroniclers and paintings, as well as his own photos of various modern wiphalas. Even if anyone disagrees with what he has to say, they will certainly enjoy everything he shows. But there&#8217;s something about the cacchas, who clearly stand out in the book, that I&#8217;d like to emphasize. With utter admiration, Nicolas says they were &#8220;free electrons of colonial society&#8221; and that they &#8220;all shared the same ethnic condition (they were Indians)&#8221;. In a footnote, however, he says that according to anthropologist Thomas A. Abercrombie, the cacchas were &#8220;a multi-ethnic guild that included Indians, mestizos and even Spaniards&#8221;. Of course we would need to consult something like a census from the period to be able to say for sure, but I think it&#8217;s important to keep Abercrombie&#8217;s opinion close at hand. After all, flags are not the only thing that can be forcibly fitted into a standard.</p><p>To be clear, though, a praise of diversity is not what I&#8217;m pointing at either. True, something in Bolivian politics feeds on the idea that nationhood requires ending regionalism at all costs, but to demand merely more caccha protagonism, a commonplace of the progressive elite, is in this respect a more conservative position than some are willing to admit. This is perhaps outside the topic of Nicolas&#8217; book, but he does bring it up at the end when he recalls that former President &#193;&#241;ez put a patuj&#250; flower, symbol of eastern Bolivia, on the standard wiphala. Thus she enraged wiphala conservatives, of course, but this just goes to show that &#8220;iconoclastic campaigns&#8221; are silly, not that we should all love each other like multicolored teletubbies with a single common goal. So for instance when &#193;&#241;ez, now in prison, said in one of her recent <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220820192306/https://correodelsur.com/politica/20211003_anez-resistire-es-la-lucha-de-todos-los-bolivianos-la-democracia.html">open letters</a>: &#8220;the struggle of all Bolivians, is my struggle!!!&#8221;, she was wrong. &#193;&#241;ez deserves a fair trial and currently does not have one, but Bolivia&#8217;s future and her own are two separate things. Incidentally, former President Morales would also do well to accept that once and for all. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h1>Fran&#231;ais</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K0DF!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fed3bcfe8-89ed-4c12-b26d-3eef822cba7c_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K0DF!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fed3bcfe8-89ed-4c12-b26d-3eef822cba7c_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K0DF!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fed3bcfe8-89ed-4c12-b26d-3eef822cba7c_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K0DF!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fed3bcfe8-89ed-4c12-b26d-3eef822cba7c_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K0DF!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fed3bcfe8-89ed-4c12-b26d-3eef822cba7c_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K0DF!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fed3bcfe8-89ed-4c12-b26d-3eef822cba7c_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/ed3bcfe8-89ed-4c12-b26d-3eef822cba7c_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:226903,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K0DF!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fed3bcfe8-89ed-4c12-b26d-3eef822cba7c_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K0DF!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fed3bcfe8-89ed-4c12-b26d-3eef822cba7c_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K0DF!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fed3bcfe8-89ed-4c12-b26d-3eef822cba7c_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!K0DF!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fed3bcfe8-89ed-4c12-b26d-3eef822cba7c_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Ce que vous pouvez lire ci-dessus est la paraphrase par Nicolas d&#8217;un chroniqueur du 17-18e si&#232;cle, Bartolom&#233; Arz&#225;ns de Ors&#250;a y Vela, qui a &#233;t&#233; t&#233;moin de cet &#233;pisode et l&#8217;a relat&#233; dans sa c&#233;l&#232;bre <em>Histoire de la ville imp&#233;riale de Potos&#237;</em>. Ce qu&#8217;Arz&#225;ns a dit est cependant l&#233;g&#232;rement diff&#233;rent, et par bonheur Nicolas l&#8217;a &#233;galement cit&#233;:</p><blockquote><p>En voyant la ferocit&#233; de cet Indien un Espagnol, marchand, qui le connaissait dans cette ville, et en voyant que les Indiens allaient s&#8217;entretuer, il a ordonn&#233; &#224; l&#8217;enseigne de venir avec le drapeau, et en le hissant a dit &#224; Agust&#237;n de v&#233;n&#233;rer le drapeau royal et d&#8217;&#234;tre tranquille. &#192; ce moment-l&#224; plus de 20 Indiens et d&#8217;autres d&#8217;autres nations &#233;taient a sa faveur, mais la prudence de l&#8217;Espagnol y avait r&#233;solu, car l&#8217;Indien s&#8217;est dirig&#233; vers le drapeau et a fait trois r&#233;v&#233;rences <em>comme celles qu&#8217;on faisaient devant les rois Incas.</em></p></blockquote><p>&#192; en juger par cette citation (avec mon accentuation en italique &#224; la fin), Quespi ne s&#8217;est pas inclin&#233; en croyant que l&#8217;inca &#233;tait en fait devant lui, il a simplement eu recours au m&#234;me type de r&#233;v&#233;rence qui aurait &#233;t&#233; appropri&#233; dans un contexte pr&#233;colonial, bien que toujours monarchique. Eu recours pour ainsi dire, d&#8217;ailleurs, car au d&#233;but des ann&#233;es 1700s, &#224; peu pr&#232;s quand la chronique a &#233;t&#233; r&#233;dig&#233;e, ni Arz&#225;ns ni Quespi n&#8217;auraient pu savoir ce que c&#8217;&#233;tait de se tenir debout et baisser la t&#234;te devant un vrai roi Inca. Il est facile d&#8217;oublier que quoique beaucoup plus proches que nous aux temps pr&#233;coloniales, ils vivaient eux aussi dans un monde qui &#233;tait d&#233;j&#224; diff&#233;rent. &#192; mon avis, Nicolas a en quelque sorte brouill&#233; ce d&#233;tail avec sa paraphrase, se qui fait finalement Quespi appara&#238;tre comme un adorateur du drapeau plut&#244;t qu&#8217;un lecteur pragmatique des protocoles sociaux. L&#8217;intention de Nicolas &#233;tait sinc&#232;re, j&#8217;estime, mais comme le linguiste John E. Joseph le dirait, des cas comme celui-ci montrent que la classe est &#8220;une construction sociale d&#8217;un ordre hautement id&#233;ologique&#8221;, une dans laquelle &#8220;nous analystes, plut&#244;t que les membres des &#8216;classes&#8217; eux-m&#234;mes, faisons la plus grande partie de la construction&#8221;. Ceci &#233;tant dit, ce qui suit est ma revue de la recherche de Nicolas sur l&#8217;histoire d&#8217;un drapeau, qui comme on le sait est un autre objet hautement id&#233;ologique.</p><h4>D&#8217;abord un bref r&#233;sum&#233;</h4><p><em>Drapeaux de combat, drapeaux de culte: Les wiphalas du roi</em> est un essai historique sur l&#8217;origine d&#8217;un drapeau Bolivien, la wiphala, et la fa&#231;on dont il est devenu l&#8217;embl&#232;me de l&#8217;&#233;tat indig&#233;niste actuel. &#192; cet effet le livre relie divers faits &#233;pars, mais est centr&#233; sur la F&#234;te du Rosarie qui est c&#233;l&#233;br&#233;e chaque Octobre &#224; Betanzos, Potos&#237;. Il comporte dix-sept chapitres et une conclusion qui ensemble forment au total cinq parties. Du chapitre un au cinq il explique comment les racines militaires et catholiques de la wiphala sont arriv&#233;s dans les colonies Espagnoles; du six au neuf il explique l&#8217;&#233;volution du culte de la Vierge du Rosaire depuis la Bataille de L&#233;pante jusqu&#8217;&#224; aujourd&#8217;hui; du dix au treize il raconte comment les &#8220;cacchas&#8221;, une guilde de mineurs pigistes, utilisaient la wiphala &#224; leurs propres fins au 18e si&#232;cle; et du quatorze au dix-sept il raconte comment s&#8217;est d&#233;roul&#233;e la F&#234;te du Rosarie pendant l&#8217;ind&#233;pendance et l&#8217;aube de la r&#233;publique. La conclusion met tout cela au service d&#8217;expliquer les conflits de 2019 en Bolivie. L&#8217;essai est bien document&#233; et vise on peut dire un autre savant de la wiphala, Germ&#225;n Choquehuanca, dont la &#8220;campagne iconoclaste&#8221; supprime, dit Nicolas, la multitude de significations que l&#8217;histoire de cet drapeau incarne.</p><p>Nicolas est n&#233; en Belgique, a &#233;tudi&#233; philosophie et anthropologie &#224; l&#8217;Universit&#233; Livre de Bruxelles et a fait des &#233;tudes sup&#233;rieures &#224; l&#8217;<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125164936/http://www.pieb.org/fpieb_upieb.php">universit&#233;</a> de la fondation PIEB et &#224; l&#8217;EHESS &#224; Paris. A l&#8217;EHESS, son directeur the th&#232;se &#233;tait le professeur Gilles Rivi&#232;res, sp&#233;cialiste en anthropologie Andine, et il a fait sa th&#232;se sur la localit&#233; de Tinguipaya, &#224; Potos&#237;. En 2015 cet travail a &#233;t&#233; publi&#233; sous forme de livre comme <em>Los ayllus de Tinguipaya: Ensayos de historia a varias voces</em>. Nicolas est arriv&#233; en Bolivie pour la premi&#232;re fois en 1996 et y vit jusqu&#8217;au pr&#233;sent. Il a enseign&#233; dans plusieurs universit&#233;s &#224; La Paz, Sucre et Oruro, il est investigateur au PIEB depuis 2000 et a &#233;t&#233; directeur r&#233;gional de la fondation Acci&#243;n Cultural Loyola (<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125165255/https://aclo.org.bo/">ACLO</a>) &#224; Potos&#237; entre 2009-11. Depuis 2019, il est devenu coordinateur du Mus&#233;e National d&#8217;Ethnographie et Folklore (<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125165659/http://musef.org.bo/">MUSEF</a>). Il parle couramment le Quechua et l&#8217;Espagnol, a jusqu&#8217;&#224; pr&#233;sent publi&#233; environ six livres et celui que je mets en revue ici a &#233;t&#233; publi&#233; en 2020 et est le dernier qu&#8217;il a &#233;crit &#224; la date de ce post.</p><h4>Le livre en question</h4><p>Nicolas &#233;nonce sa th&#232;se comme suit: &#8220;Je propose que pour trouver l&#8217;origine probable des wiphalas, on doit chercher dans la parade du drapeau royal et le serment du Roi&#8221;. Il dit que cette id&#233;e lui est venue apr&#232;s avoir trouv&#233; deux drapeaux similaires mais &#233;loign&#233;s l&#8217;un de l&#8217;autre, le premier lorsqu&#8217;il a assist&#233; &#224; une Pentec&#244;te &#224; Manquiri, Potos&#237;, et le second dans un tableau de la Bataille de Rocroi (1643) qui a mis fin &#224; l&#8217;h&#233;g&#233;monie Espagnole en Europe. Les deux drapeaux avaient l&#8217;insigne des Ducs de Bourgogne, la croix rouge de Saint-Andr&#233;, mais pas grand-chose d&#8217;autre en commun. Pour les connecter, Nicolas remonte &#224; l&#8217;essor de l&#8217;Empire Espagnol, la d&#233;faite du Sultan de Grenade en 1492. Il dit qu&#8217;&#224; l&#8217;&#233;poque, Saint-Andr&#233; et d&#8217;autres saints &#233;taient d&#233;j&#224; utilis&#233;s comme gardiens des campagnes militaires tant en Europe qu&#8217;en Am&#233;rique. C&#8217;est le cas de l&#8217;Ap&#244;tre Saint Jacques, mais aussi la Vierge Marie lors de la Bataille de L&#233;pante (1571), dont l&#8217;invocation du Rosaire a &#233;t&#233; diffus&#233;e par les Dominicains en Am&#233;rique du Sud. D&#8217;o&#249; le nom &#8220;Vierge du Rosaire&#8221;, ainsi que le ton militaire-religieux de sa festivit&#233;.</p><p>Les victoires Espagnoles &#233;taient dues &#224; leur c&#233;l&#232;bre syst&#232;me d&#8217;infanterie, appel&#233; &#8220;tercios&#8221;, qui est arriv&#233; en Am&#233;rique sous le r&#232;gne de Charles V. Mais le roi n&#8217;est jamais arriv&#233; en personne, alors les armes des tercios, &#8220;de tr&#232;s longues piques, &#233;p&#233;es et arquebuses&#8221;, ont d&#251; raviver sa pr&#233;sence de mani&#232;re c&#233;r&#233;moniale. Nicolas dit qu&#8217;ils fonctionnaient comme un &#8220;reminder&#8221;, mais que le temps a apport&#233; avec lui d&#8217;autres couches qui ont maintenu le rituel en vie et submerg&#233; l&#8217;explication de son origine. Le serment au roi deviendrait particuli&#232;rement rare en 1808, lorsque Napol&#233;on a renvers&#233; Ferdinand VII, dit-il, car l&#8217;Am&#233;rique &#233;tait si loin de Castille que la nouvelle du nouveau roi et celle de sa d&#233;faite sont arriv&#233;es pratiquement en m&#234;me temps. L&#8217;enseigne et la foule c&#233;l&#232;braient encore sa loyaut&#233; envers Ferdinand VII, tandis que les autorit&#233;s, plus au courant de Napol&#233;on que les pl&#233;b&#233;iens, craignent secr&#232;tement pour leur avenir. Deux ans plus tard, les vierges ont acquis encore un autre &#8220;r&#244;le comme protectrices des arm&#233;es&#8221;, seulement que cette fois-ci c&#8217;&#233;tait dans la Guerre d&#8217;Ind&#233;pendance.</p><p>Nicolas cite deux autres tableaux ant&#233;rieurs &#224; cette guerre, l&#8217;un montrant peut-&#234;tre une r&#233;volte des cacchas qui s&#8217;est produite en 1751 et un autre par Melchor P&#233;rez de Holgu&#237;n, le peintre colonial classique. Malgr&#233; l&#8217;importance &#233;conomique incontest&#233;e des cacchas depuis le 17e si&#232;cle, le deuxi&#232;me tableau, dit-il, montre un paysage &#8220;idyllique&#8221; o&#249; parce que les insurg&#233;s sont Indiens ils ne figurent que marginalement. Cette plainte sur le racisme de l&#8217;art colonial est un lieu commun parmi quelques historiens, et ici Nicolas ajoute certainement &#224; l&#8217;&#233;cho, mais il fournit aussi de nouvelles donn&#233;es: il dit que les armes des cacchas &#233;taient &#8220;celles d&#8217;un tercio Espagnol&#8221; et que leur mentalit&#233; &#233;tait celle d&#8217;une &#8220;appropriation sans complexe des symboles du pouvoir colonial&#8221;. Alors le drapeau royal a persist&#233; dans le temps en &#233;tant distordu, ou comme le dirait Nicolas, en &#233;tant &#8220;c&#341;eativement r&#233;appropri&#233;&#8221;. Fait int&#233;ressant, il dit qu&#8217;elle a retenu son ethos contre les &#8220;infid&#232;les&#8221;, m&#234;me si la question de savoir qui &#233;tait ainsi appel&#233; et pourquoi est devenue une affaire beaucoup plus cryptique et vari&#233;e.</p><p>Comme le voudrait Nicolas, donc, &#8220;les wiphalas du Roi&#8221; doivent &#234;tre discut&#233;s au pluriel car ils &#233;taient nombreux. La n&#233;cessit&#233; d&#8217;inventer une wiphala standard est apparue seulement apr&#232;s l&#8217;ind&#233;pendance (1825). Dans les ann&#233;es 1990s, Germ&#225;n Choquehuanca a affin&#233; ce processus en affirmant que les wiphalas sont d&#8217;origine pr&#233;hispanique, ce qui selon Nicolas n&#8217;est pas vrai, et en 2009 le d&#233;cret supr&#234;me <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125172828/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-DS-N241.xhtml">241</a> a consolid&#233; la standardisation. Nicolas dit que cela a provoqu&#233; la &#8220;disparition progressive des anciennes wiphalas&#8221;, qui sont importants pour lui car elles parlent de la &#8220;mentalit&#233; caccha&#8221;. Il cite par exemple le cas d&#8217;Agust&#237;n Quespi, un caccha c&#233;l&#232;bre qui appara&#238;t dans les r&#233;cits du chroniqueur Arz&#225;ns. Arz&#225;ns dit que Quespi &#233;tait g&#233;n&#233;reux avec ses amis mais brutal avec ceux qui le d&#233;passaient. Apparemment seulement le drapeau royal pouvait calmer ses humeurs. Et selon Nicolas, si m&#234;me quelqu&#8217;un de si f&#233;roce avait une place dans sa poitrine pour des symboles Espagnols, alors il n&#8217;est pas sage de sous-estimer l&#8217;h&#233;ritage de l&#8217;Empire Espagnol &#8220;m&#234;me dans les choses qu&#8217;on consid&#232;re les plus aborig&#232;nes&#8221;.</p><h4>Mon commentaire</h4><p>Le livre de Nicolas a des citations de divers chroniqueurs et tableaux anciens, ainsi que ses propres photos de divers wiphalas modernes. M&#234;me si quelqu&#8217;un n&#8217;est pas d&#8217;accord avec ce qu&#8217;il a &#224; dire, on peut certainement appr&#233;cier tout ce qu&#8217;il montre. Mais il y a quelque chose &#224; propos des cacchas, qui se d&#233;tachent clairement dans le livre, que je voudrais renforcer. Avec totale admiration, Nicolas dit qu&#8217;ils &#233;taient des &#8220;&#233;lectrons libres de la soci&#233;t&#233; coloniale&#8221; et &#8220;qu&#8217;ils partageaient tous la m&#234;me condition ethnique (ils &#233;taient Indiens)&#8221;. Dans une note de bas de page, cependant, il dit que selon l&#8217;anthropologue Thomas A. Abercrombie, les cacchas &#233;taient &#8220;une guilde multiethnique qui comprenait des Indiens, des m&#233;tis et m&#234;me des Espagnols&#8221;. Bien s&#251;r il faudrait consulter quelque chose comme un recensement de l&#8217;&#233;poque pour en &#234;tre s&#251;r, mais je le crois important de garder l&#8217;opinion d&#8217;Abercrombie &#224; port&#233;e de main. Apr&#232;s tout, les drapeaux ne sont pas la seule chose qui peut &#234;tre ajust&#233;e de force dans un standard.</p><p>Pour &#234;tre clair, cependant, un &#233;loge de la diversit&#233; n&#8217;est pas non plus ce que vise. Vrai, quelque chose dans la politique Bolivienne se nourrit de l&#8217;id&#233;e que l&#8217;esprit national exige mettre fin au r&#233;gionalisme &#224; tout prix, mais demander purement plus de protagonisme caccha, un lieu commun de l&#8217;&#233;lite progressiste, est &#224; cet &#233;gard une position plus conservatrice que certains ne sont pr&#234;ts &#224; l&#8217;admettre. Cela sort peut-&#234;tre du sujet du livre de Nicolas, mais il le soul&#232;ve &#224; la fin lorsqu&#8217;il rappelle que l&#8217;ancienne Pr&#233;sidente &#193;&#241;ez a mis une fleur de patuj&#250;, symbole de l&#8217;orient Bolivien, sur la wiphala standard. Ainsi elle a rendu furieux les conservateurs de la wiphala, bien s&#251;r, mais cela montre simplement que les &#8220;campagnes iconoclastes&#8221; sont sots, pas que nous devrions nous aimer l&#8217;un l&#8217;autre comme des teletubbies multicolores avec un seul but commun. Donc par example quand &#193;&#241;ez, maintenant en prison, a dit dans une de ces r&#233;centes <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220820192306/https://correodelsur.com/politica/20211003_anez-resistire-es-la-lucha-de-todos-los-bolivianos-la-democracia.html">lettres ouvertes</a>: &#8220;la lutte de tous les Boliviens, c&#8217;est ma lutte!!!&#8221;, elle avait tort. &#193;&#241;ez m&#233;rite un proc&#232;s &#233;quitable et n&#8217;en a pas actuellement, mais l&#8217;avenir de la Bolivie et le sien sont deux choses distinctes. Incidemment, l&#8217;ancien Pr&#233;sident Morales feraient bien aussi d&#8217;accepter cela une fois pour toutes. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h1>Espa&#241;ol</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6hee!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8fa969f3-7a5a-401b-8713-c5d78b4a931a_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6hee!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8fa969f3-7a5a-401b-8713-c5d78b4a931a_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6hee!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8fa969f3-7a5a-401b-8713-c5d78b4a931a_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6hee!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8fa969f3-7a5a-401b-8713-c5d78b4a931a_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6hee!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8fa969f3-7a5a-401b-8713-c5d78b4a931a_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6hee!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8fa969f3-7a5a-401b-8713-c5d78b4a931a_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/8fa969f3-7a5a-401b-8713-c5d78b4a931a_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:222829,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6hee!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8fa969f3-7a5a-401b-8713-c5d78b4a931a_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6hee!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8fa969f3-7a5a-401b-8713-c5d78b4a931a_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6hee!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8fa969f3-7a5a-401b-8713-c5d78b4a931a_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6hee!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8fa969f3-7a5a-401b-8713-c5d78b4a931a_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Lo que pueden leer aqu&#237; arriba es Nicolas parafraseando a un cronista del siglo 17-18, Bartolom&#233; Arz&#225;ns de Ors&#250;a y Vela, que fue testigo del episodio y escribi&#243; sobre &#233;l en su famosa <em>Historia de la villa imperial de Potos&#237;</em>. Lo que dijo Arz&#225;ns es ligeramente distinto, sin embargo, y por suerte Nicolas tambi&#233;n lo cit&#243;:</p><blockquote><p>Viendo aquella fiereza de este Indio un Espa&#241;ol, mercader, que en esta villa lo conoc&#237;a, y que se matar&#237;an unos a otros aquellos Indios, mand&#243; al alf&#233;rez se llegase con la bandera, y enarbol&#225;ndola le dijo a Agust&#237;n venerase aquella real bandera y se aquietase. Ya en esto se hallaban en favor suyo en aquel campo m&#225;s de 20 Indios y de otras naciones, pero la prudencia del Espa&#241;ol lo remedi&#243; pues el Indio acudi&#243; a la bandera y le hizo tres reverencias <em>de las que hac&#237;an a los reyes Ingas.</em></p></blockquote><p>A juzgar por esta cita (con mi &#233;nfasis en cursivas al final), Quespi no se agach&#243; pensando que el inca estaba en efecto delante de &#233;l, solo recurri&#243; al mismo tipo de reverencia que habr&#237;a sido apropiado en un contexto precolonial, si bien de todos modos mon&#225;rquico. Recurri&#243; a ello por as&#237; decir, adem&#225;s, porque para inicios de los 1700s, m&#225;s o menos cuando la cr&#243;nica fue escrita, ni Arz&#225;ns ni Quespi podr&#237;an haber sabido lo que era estar de pie y agacharse ante un aut&#233;ntico rey Inca. Es f&#225;cil olvidar que aunque mucho m&#225;s cerca que nosotros de tiempos precoloniales, ellos tambi&#233;n viv&#237;an en un mundo que ya era distinto. En mi opini&#243;n, Nicolas borr&#243; un poco ese detalle con su par&#225;frasis, lo que a fin de cuentas hace que Quespi aparezca como un adorador de banderas antes que un lector pragm&#225;tico de protocolos sociales. La intenci&#243;n de Nicolas era honesta, considero, pero como dir&#237;a el ling&#252;ista John E. Joseph, casos as&#237; nos recuerdan que la clase es &#8220;un constructo social de orden altamente ideol&#243;gico&#8221;, uno en el que &#8220;nosotros como analistas, antes que los propios miembros de las &#8216;clases&#8217;, hacemos la mayor parte de la construcci&#243;n&#8221;. Dicho esto, lo que sigue es mi rese&#241;a de la investigaci&#243;n de Nicolas sobre la historia de una bandera, que como sabemos tambi&#233;n es otro objeto altamente ideol&#243;gico.</p><h4>Primero un breve resumen</h4><p><em>Banderas de lucha, banderas de culto: Las wiphalas del rey</em> es un ensayo hist&#243;rico sobre el origen de una bandera Boliviana, la wiphala, y c&#243;mo esta vino a ser el emblema del estado indigenista actual. Con este fin el libro conecta varios datos dispersos, pero est&#225; centrado en la Fiesta del Rosario que se celebra cada Octubre en Betanzos, Potos&#237;. Tiene diecisiete cap&#237;tulos y una conclusi&#243;n que en conjunto forman un total cinco partes. Del cap&#237;tulo uno al cinco explica c&#243;mo las ra&#237;ces militares y cat&#243;licas de la wiphala llegaron a las colonias Espa&#241;olas; del seis al nueve explica la evoluci&#243;n del culto a la Virgen del Rosario desde la Batalla de Lepanto hasta ahora; del diez al trece relata c&#243;mo los &#8220;cacchas&#8221;, un gremio de mineros cuentapropistas, usaron la wiphala para sus propios fines en el siglo 18; y del catorce al diecisiete relata c&#243;mo era la Fiesta del Rosario durante la independencia y los albores de la rep&#250;blica. La conclusi&#243;n pone todo esto a la tarea de explicar los conflictos de 2019 en Bolivia. El ensayo est&#225; bien documentado y puede decirse que apunta a otro estudioso de la wiphala, Germ&#225;n Choquehuanca, cuya &#8220;campa&#241;a iconoclasta&#8221; suprime, dice Nicolas, la multitud de significados que la historia de esta bandera personifica.</p><p>Nicolas naci&#243; en B&#233;lgica, estudi&#243; filosof&#237;a y antropolog&#237;a en la Universit&#233; Livre de Bruxelles e hizo posgrados en la <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125164936/http://www.pieb.org/fpieb_upieb.php">universidad</a> de la fundaci&#243;n PIEB y la EHESS en Par&#237;s. En la EHESS, tuvo de tutor al profesor Gilles Rivi&#232;res, un especialista en antropolog&#237;a Andina, e hizo su investigaci&#243;n sobre la localidad de Tinguipaya, Potos&#237;. En 2015 este trabajo se public&#243; en forma de libro como <em>Los ayllus de Tinguipaya: Ensayos de historia a varias voces</em>. A un inicio Nicolas fue a Bolivia en 1996 y ha vivido all&#237; hasta el presente. Ha ense&#241;ado en varias universidades de La Paz, Sucre y Oruro, ha sido investigador del PIEB desde 2000 y fue director regional de la fundaci&#243;n Acci&#243;n Cultural Loyola (<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125165255/https://aclo.org.bo/">ACLO</a>), con sede Potos&#237;, entre 2009-11. Desde 2019, ha sido coordinador del Museo Nacional de Etnograf&#237;a y Folklore (<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125165659/http://musef.org.bo/">MUSEF</a>). Sabe hablar Quechua y Espa&#241;ol con fluidez, ha publicado hasta ahora unos seis libros y el que rese&#241;o aqu&#237; fue publicado en 2020 y es el &#250;ltimo que escribi&#243; a la fecha de este post.</p><h4>El libro en cuesti&#243;n</h4><p>Nicolas enuncia su tesis as&#237;: &#8220;Propongo que hay que buscar en el paseo del estandarte real y en la jura del Rey el origen probable de las wiphalas&#8221;. Dice que esta idea vino a &#233;l de haber encontrado dos banderas parecidas y lejanas una de otra, la primera cuando asist&#237;a a un Pentecost&#233;s en Manquiri, Potos&#237;, y la segunda en una pintura de la Batalla de Rocroi (1643) que puso fin a la hegemon&#237;a Espa&#241;ola en Europa. Ambas banderas ten&#237;an la insignia de los Duques de Borgo&#241;a, la cruz roja de San Andr&#233;s, pero no mucho m&#225;s en com&#250;n. Para conectarlas, Nicolas retrocede al auge del Imperio Espa&#241;ol, la derrota del Sult&#225;n de Granada en 1492. Dice que ya entonces San Andr&#233;s y otros santos eran usados como guardianes de campa&#241;as militares tanto en Europa como Am&#233;rica. Tal el caso del Ap&#243;stol Santiago, pero tambi&#233;n de la Virgen Mar&#237;a en la Batalla de Lepanto (1571), cuya advocaci&#243;n del Rosario esparcieron los Dominicos en Sudam&#233;rica. De ah&#237; el nombre &#8220;Virgen del Rosario&#8221;, as&#237; como el tono militar-religioso en su festividad.</p><p>Las victorias Espa&#241;olas se deb&#237;an a su famoso sistema de infanter&#237;a, llamado &#8220;tercios&#8221;, que lleg&#243; a Am&#233;rica en el reinado de Carlos V. Pero el rey nunca lleg&#243; en persona, as&#237; que las armas de los tercios, &#8220;picas muy largas, espadas y arcabuces&#8221;, ten&#237;an que revivir su presencia de forma ceremonial. Nicolas dice que funcionaban como un &#8220;reminder&#8221;, pero que el tiempo trajo consigo otras capas que mantuvieron vivo el ritual y sumergieron la explicaci&#243;n de su origen. La jura al rey lleg&#243; a ser especialmente rara en 1808, cuando Napole&#243;n derroc&#243; a Fernando VII, dice, porque Am&#233;rica estaba tan lejos de Castilla que la noticia del nuevo rey y la de su derrota llegaron pr&#225;cticamente al mismo tiempo. El alf&#233;rez y la multitud celebraban a&#250;n su lealtad a Fernando VII ese a&#241;o en la villa imperial de Potos&#237;, mientras las autoridades, m&#225;s al tanto de Napole&#243;n que lo estaba la plebe, tem&#237;an en secreto por su futuro. Dos a&#241;os m&#225;s tarde, las v&#237;rgenes adquirieron un nuevo &#8220;papel protector de ej&#233;rcitos&#8221;, excepto que esta vez era en la Guerra de Independencia.</p><p>Nicolas cita otras dos pinturas anteriores a esta guerra, una que posiblemente muestra una revuelta de los cacchas ocurrida en 1751 y otra de Melchor P&#233;rez de Holgu&#237;n, el cl&#225;sico pintor colonial. A pesar de la indiscutible relevancia econ&#243;mica de los cacchas desde el siglo 17, la segunda pintura, dice, muestra un paisaje &#8220;id&#237;lico&#8221; donde ya que los insurgentes son Indios solo figuran marginalmente. Esta queja sobre el racismo del arte colonial es un lugar com&#250;n entre algunos historiadores, y aqu&#237; Nicolas ciertamente se suma al eco, pero tambi&#233;n arroja datos nuevos: dice que las armas de los cacchas eran &#8220;las de un tercio Espa&#241;ol&#8221; y que su mentalidad era una de &#8220;apropiaci&#243;n desacomplejada de los s&#237;mbolos de poder colonial&#8221;. As&#237; que la bandera real persisti&#243; en el tiempo siendo distorsionada, o como dir&#237;a Nicolas, siendo &#8220;creativamente reapropiada&#8221;. Curiosamente, dice que retuvo su ethos contra los &#8220;filisteos&#8221;, aunque la cuesti&#243;n de qui&#233;nes eran as&#237; llamados y por qu&#233; se hizo mucho m&#225;s cr&#237;ptica y variada.</p><p>Como Nicolas preferir&#237;a, entonces, &#8220;las wiphalas del Rey&#8221; deben ser discutidas en plural porque hubo muchas. La necesidad de inventar una wiphala est&#225;ndar surgi&#243; solo despu&#233;s de la independencia (1825). En los 1990s, Germ&#225;n Choquehuanca refin&#243; este proceso al sostener que las wiphalas son de origen prehisp&#225;nico, lo que seg&#250;n Nicolas no es cierto, y en 2009 el decreto supremo <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125172828/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-DS-N241.xhtml">241</a> consolid&#243; la estandarizaci&#243;n. Nicolas dice que esto provoc&#243; la &#8220;desaparici&#243;n paulatina de las wiphalas antiguas&#8221;, que son importantes para &#233;l porque hablan de la &#8220;mentalidad caccha&#8221;. &#201;l cita por ejemplo el caso de Agust&#237;n Quespi, un caccha famoso que aparece en los relatos del cronista Arz&#225;ns. Arz&#225;ns dice que Quespi era generoso con amigos pero brutal con quienes pasaban por encima de &#233;l. Al parecer solo la bandera real pod&#237;a calmar sus arranques. Y seg&#250;n Nicolas, si aun alguien as&#237; de feroz ten&#237;a un lugar en su pecho para s&#237;mbolos Espa&#241;oles, entonces no es sensato subestimar la herencia del Imperio Espa&#241;ol &#8220;aun en las manifestaciones consideradas m&#225;s aut&#243;ctonas&#8221;.</p><h4>Mi comentario</h4><p>El libro de Nicolas tiene citas de varios cronistas y pinturas antiguas, as&#237; como sus propias fotos de varias wiphalas modernas. Incluso si alguien no estuviere de acuerdo con lo que tiene para decir, disfrutar&#225; ciertamente de todo lo que muestra. Pero hay algo sobre los cacchas, quienes claramente destacan en el libro, que quisiera enfatizar. Con total admiraci&#243;n, Nicolas dice que fueron &#8220;electrones libres de la sociedad colonial&#8221; y que &#8220;compart&#237;an todos una misma condici&#243;n &#233;tnica (eran Indios)&#8221;. En nota al pie, sin embargo, dice que seg&#250;n el antrop&#243;logo Thomas A. Abercrombie, los cacchas eran &#8220;un gremio multi&#233;tnico que acog&#237;a a Indios, mestizos e, incluso, Espa&#241;oles&#8221;. Claro que har&#237;a falta consultar algo as&#237; como un censo de la &#233;poca para poder decir a ciencia cierta, pero creo importante mantener la opini&#243;n de Abercrombie a mano. Despu&#233;s de todo, las banderas no son lo &#250;nico que se puede encajar a la fuerza en un est&#225;ndar.</p><p>Para ser claro, sin embargo, un elogio de la diversidad tampoco es a lo que apunto. Es verdad, algo en la pol&#237;tica Boliviana se alimenta de la idea de que la nacionalidad requiere acabar con el regionalismo a cualquier precio, pero pedir simplemente m&#225;s protagonismo caccha, un lugar com&#250;n de la &#233;lite progresista, es a este respecto una posici&#243;n m&#225;s conservadora de lo que algunos est&#225;n dispuestos a admitir. Esto quiz&#225; sale del tema del libro de Nicolas, pero &#233;l lo se&#241;ala al final cuando recuerda que la ex Presidente &#193;&#241;ez puso una flor de patuj&#250;, s&#237;mbolo del oriente Boliviano, en la wiphala est&#225;ndar. De este modo enfureci&#243; a los conservadores de la wiphala, claro, pero esto solo muestra que las &#8220;campa&#241;as iconoclastas&#8221; son tontas, no que debamos amarnos unos a otros como teletubbies multicolores con una sola meta com&#250;n. As&#237; por ejemplo cuando &#193;&#241;ez, hoy presa, dijo en una de sus recientes <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220820192306/https://correodelsur.com/politica/20211003_anez-resistire-es-la-lucha-de-todos-los-bolivianos-la-democracia.html">cartas abiertas</a>: &#8220;la lucha de todos los Bolivianos, es mi lucha!!!&#8221;, estaba equivocada. &#193;&#241;ez merece un juicio justo y actualmente no lo tiene, pero el futuro de Bolivia y el suyo propio son dos cosas aparte. A prop&#243;sito, el ex Presidente Morales tambi&#233;n har&#237;a bien en aceptar eso de una buena vez. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><blockquote><h4>Reference</h4><p><em>The <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/banderas-de-lucha-banderas-de-culto-las-wiphalas-del-rey-contribucion-al-estudio-de-una-iconografia-imperial-popular-en-los-andes-en-el-periodo-colonial-y-poscolonial-el-caso-de-las-banderas-de-rosario-y-san-bartolome-en-la-region-circundante-a-potosi/oclc/1259513571&amp;referer=brief_results">edition</a> I used for this review.</em></p><p><em>Last updated on 31 January 2024.</em></p></blockquote>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Coca cultivation, drug traffic and regional development in Cochabamba, Bolivia - by Roberto Laserna]]></title><description><![CDATA[#BookReview #Chapare #Cochabamba #Coca]]></description><link>https://erblog.net/p/roberto-lasernas-coca-cultivation</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://erblog.net/p/roberto-lasernas-coca-cultivation</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[ER]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 26 Sep 2021 12:14:57 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EBDE!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cbcae48-376a-4fa8-991c-27f2f3acb7df_2000x2000.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<blockquote><h4>This review can be read in:</h4><p><em>English</em></p><p><em>Fran&#231;ais</em></p><p><em>Espa&#241;ol</em></p></blockquote><h1>English</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EBDE!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cbcae48-376a-4fa8-991c-27f2f3acb7df_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EBDE!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cbcae48-376a-4fa8-991c-27f2f3acb7df_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EBDE!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cbcae48-376a-4fa8-991c-27f2f3acb7df_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EBDE!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cbcae48-376a-4fa8-991c-27f2f3acb7df_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EBDE!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cbcae48-376a-4fa8-991c-27f2f3acb7df_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EBDE!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cbcae48-376a-4fa8-991c-27f2f3acb7df_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9cbcae48-376a-4fa8-991c-27f2f3acb7df_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:230559,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EBDE!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cbcae48-376a-4fa8-991c-27f2f3acb7df_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EBDE!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cbcae48-376a-4fa8-991c-27f2f3acb7df_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EBDE!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cbcae48-376a-4fa8-991c-27f2f3acb7df_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!EBDE!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9cbcae48-376a-4fa8-991c-27f2f3acb7df_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Referring to a trend of the 1970s and 1980s, Marjorie Deane and Robert Pringle say in their book <em>The central banks</em> that &#8220;hyperinflation is most often associated historically with Latin America&#8221;. Of course, the way this plays out gets more subtle once you dig into each particular case. In Bolivia, hyperinflation occurred during the so-called &#8220;coca boom&#8221; and right after a series of military dictatorships. B&#225;nzer and Garc&#237;a Meza, two of the dictators, were in fact accused of being linked to the cocaine business, which is what triggered the boom in the first place. But the government that suffered the hyperinflation and the one that solved it were led respectively by Siles and Estenssoro, two former political allies and the first non-military presidents of the 1980s. The following is my review of Laserna&#8217;s research on this period, which argues that hyperinflation and the boom were actually two sides of the same coin.</p><h4>First a little overview</h4><p><em>Coca cultivation, drug traffic and regional development in Cochabamba, Bolivia</em> is a socioeconomic research on the impact that the cocaine boom (1980) and hyperinflation (1985) had on peasant life in the Cochabamba tropics. In chapters one to five, the book highlights the weight of the cocaine business in the Bolivian economy and tells how one of its engines, the Cochabamba peasant, emerged. In chapters six to nine, it discusses the risks and opportunities that the boom brought with it, as well as the damage caused by anti-drug policies of the governments of Bolivia and the US. Laserna calls this historic episode &#8220;the boom in the crisis&#8221; and he says that combining statistical data with individual testimonies is crucial to studying it. Only thus, he believes, can one find out &#8220;what possibilities the small indigenous coca grower had to accumulate wealth&#8221; during the boom and in spite of the crisis.</p><p>Laserna was born in Cochabamba, Bolivia, he studied economics at UMSS and did graduate studies at FLACSO in Quito and the University of California at Berkeley. In 1976 he won the Franz Tamayo literary award with a short story, &#8220;La sombra que habita&#8221;, and in short format he also publishes in newspapers and a <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231214154141/https://laserna.wordpress.com/">blog</a> that he keeps since 2007. He was a professor of economics and sociology at UMSS and taught seasonally at the Universidad del Pac&#237;fico, in Lima, and as a visiting professor at Princeton. He has been a researcher since 1981 at the Center for the Study of Economic and Social Reality (<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231214154539/https://ceresbolivia.org/">CERES</a>) and was director of the <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231214154722/https://fundacion-milenio.org/">Milenio Foundation</a> in 2003-11. Working for these think-tanks he has so far published quite a few books, about ten on his own and more than twelve in collaboration. The best known are perhaps <em>La trampa del rentismo</em> (2006), written with Gordillo and Komadina, and <em>La democracia en el ch&#8217;enko</em> (2004). The title I review here is his doctoral thesis, which was presented in 1995 and is still unpublished to date.</p><h4>The book in question</h4><p>Laserna&#8217;s thesis is that the &#8220;coca-cocaine economy&#8221; could be better addressed with state policies that openly accept it and help curb its high volatility. With this he does not advise adopting a statist strategy nor giving green light to cocaine consumption. He points to the numbers, which had discrepancies but also some general consensus, and he says that where there are business opportunities a government should promote private industry, not penalize it. He says that if in the 1980s this basic principle was not followed, it was because of pressure from the US government and in an overall very difficult situation. The Bolivian government then had a deficit and resorted to the &#8220;inorganic issuance&#8221; of money in order to finance it. As a result, Laserna found that the price index skyrocketed since 1976 and by 1985 the annual inflation rate was at 11,740%. For comparison with other hyperinflations, Venezuela&#8217;s in 2019 reached 340,000%; Germany&#8217;s in 1923 is said to have reached well over a million percent.</p><p>Laserna says that before an agricultural industry was established in the Chapare several colonization programs attempted to occupy the Bolivian lowlands. This dates back to the 19th century, but had three important milestones with the nationalist government (1952), an IDB loan to occupy Chimor&#233; (1963) and the construction of the Cochabamba-Villa Tunari highway (1972). The growth that was initially induced quickly became a natural trend. The region grew from 20,000 people in 1967 to 150,000 in 1991, with the highest peak in the growth rate (29.25%) in 1981, just one year after the rise in coca prices. The unusual thing about this wave of migration is that it caused the economic contraction to not be reflected in the unemployment rate, which Laserna says could only be due to the existence of &#8220;unregistered&#8221; activities &#8220;capable of absorbing the impact of the recession&#8221;.</p><p>These activities, he says, grew since the 1970s and by 1980 had &#8220;penetrated&#8221; national politics. The worst moment of the crisis (1983-85) strengthened their importance. The sector accounted for at least 53.4% of GDP in 1986 and 12.9% even in 1990. But while this was common knowledge, it also posed a diplomatic problem. In the 1980s the US had a domestic cocaine addiction problem and pressed for a reduction in coca cultivation in Bolivia. This and other international drug control agreements caused Bolivian authorities, although attracted by the flow of foreign currency that was generated by cocaine, to enact several anti-drug laws in an attempt to show their &#8220;commitment&#8221;. Laserna says that law 1008 (1988) was the last and worst of these, and actually came from the first non-military government after ten presidential changes between 1978-82. The problem is it hurt the lower echelons of the coca boom almost exclusively.</p><p>People who would otherwise have been badly hit by the recession were able to find work around the boom. Whether as coca growers, chemists or traffickers, they were people with low education, mostly of 20 to 40 years of age and with families to feed. But because of law 1008, they ended up in jail all too often and were thus pushed to abandon what was in principle a profitable business. Laserna says that revenue investment was generally &#8220;oriented to moving the family out of agriculture&#8221; because coca prices were high but unstable, and the best clientele was treacherous, if not dangerous. Coca cultivation in particular gave them a steady cash flow, but it was fraught with uncertainties. Hence the fact, which Laserna says is ignored, that coca growers never produced coca alone. Their &#8220;central tenet&#8221;, he says, was to always diversify for the &#8220;minimization of risk&#8221;.</p><h4>My commentary</h4><p>What Laserna calls the &#8220;rationale of the diversified producer, who does not make decisions isolated from the market&#8221; is noteworthy. It means the presence of other crops could be seen as the sign of an accomplished settlement, with coca as the &#8220;economic linchpin&#8221;. Nowadays this is still critical to Bolivian politics. Just a week ago President Biden <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221206210251/https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/biden-says-venezuela-bolivia-not-doing-enough-meet-counternarcotics-obligations-2021-09-15/">said</a> that Venezuela and Bolivia did not &#8220;adhere to their obligations under international counternarcotics agreements&#8221; in the last twelve months, and in response Bolivia was quick to sound the &#8220;sovereignty&#8221; discourse. A d&#233;j&#224;-vu? But just like yesterday, so today political sovereignty is no guarantee of economic sovereignty, no matter how foul the discourse may be. The diversified producers need clear state policies, not the vagueness with which law 1008 distinguished between coca and cocaine production &#8212; between legal and illegal agriculture. And as we saw in my <a href="https://elresenista.substack.com/p/alison-speddings-mas-partisans-and">review</a> of Spedding, law 906, from 2017, has yet to address this.</p><p>What is intriguing is that while probably anyone would welcome Laserna&#8217;s repudiation of law 1008, it is uncertain how many would accept the solution he proposes: &#8220;opening of markets&#8221; and &#8220;decriminalization&#8221;. The divide around this question runs right across Bolivia&#8217;s most heartfelt quarrels. It would be reasonable to say, for instance, that Bolivia has no reason to honor an international agreement at the expense of coca growers and their business model. It is easy to agree on that conceptually, but to go from there to opening and decriminalizing markets would be asking too much, especially if we think that when Laserna makes his proposal, he even mentions Gonzalo S&#225;nchez de Lozada and Milton Friedman in a favorable way. No member of the MAS party, in their right mind, would accept that. Neither would that narrow but expressive part of their constituency: the left-wing intellectuals. And that&#8217;s one of the things this book has taught me: Bolivia&#8217;s socialist discourse may not be wrong every time it takes solace in its illiberalism, but when it comes to coca producers, it is willing to be wrong regardless of their well-being. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h1>Fran&#231;ais</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xSZG!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faaa07bad-ede7-477d-b38f-45bfa1386864_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xSZG!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faaa07bad-ede7-477d-b38f-45bfa1386864_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xSZG!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faaa07bad-ede7-477d-b38f-45bfa1386864_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xSZG!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faaa07bad-ede7-477d-b38f-45bfa1386864_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xSZG!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faaa07bad-ede7-477d-b38f-45bfa1386864_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xSZG!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faaa07bad-ede7-477d-b38f-45bfa1386864_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/aaa07bad-ede7-477d-b38f-45bfa1386864_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:278492,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xSZG!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faaa07bad-ede7-477d-b38f-45bfa1386864_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xSZG!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faaa07bad-ede7-477d-b38f-45bfa1386864_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xSZG!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faaa07bad-ede7-477d-b38f-45bfa1386864_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xSZG!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faaa07bad-ede7-477d-b38f-45bfa1386864_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>En se r&#233;f&#233;rant &#224; une tendance des ann&#233;es 1970s et 1980s, Marjorie Deane et Robert Pringle dit dans leur livre <em>The central banks</em> que &#8220;l&#8217;hyperinflation est le plus souvent associ&#233;e historiquement &#224; l&#8217;Am&#233;rique Latine&#8221;. Bien s&#251;r, la fa&#231;on dont &#231;a se passe devient plus subtil lorsque l&#8217;on examine chaque cas particulier. En Bolivie, l&#8217;hyperinflation s&#8217;est produite pendant le soi-disant &#8220;boom de la coca&#8221; et juste apr&#232;s une s&#233;rie de dictatures militaires. B&#225;nzer et Garc&#237;a Meza, deux des dictateurs, ont &#233;t&#233; en effet accus&#233;s d&#8217;&#234;tre li&#233;s au trafic de coca&#239;ne, qui a d&#233;clench&#233; le boom au d&#233;part. Mais le gouvernement qui a subi l&#8217;hyperinflation et celui qui l&#8217;a r&#233;solue &#233;taient dirig&#233;s respectivement par Siles et Estenssoro, deux anciens alli&#233;s politiques et les premiers pr&#233;sidents non militaires des ann&#233;es 1980s. Ce qui suit est ma revue de la recherche de Laserna sur cette p&#233;riode, qui soutient que l&#8217;hyperinflation et le boom &#233;taient en fait les deux faces d&#8217;une m&#234;me pi&#232;ce.</p><h4>D&#8217;abord un bref r&#233;sum&#233;</h4><p><em>Culture de la coca, trafic de drogue et d&#233;veloppement r&#233;gional &#224; Cochabamba, Bolivie</em> est une recherche socio-&#233;conomique sur l&#8217;impact du boom de la coca&#239;ne (1980) et l&#8217;hyperinflation (1985) sur la vie paysanne dans les tropiques de Cochabamba. Dans les chapitres un &#224; cinq, le livre souligne le poids du commerce de la coca&#239;ne dans l&#8217;&#233;conomie Bolivienne et raconte comment l&#8217;un de ses moteurs, le paysan de Cochabamba, a &#233;merg&#233;. Dans les chapitres six &#224; neuf, il discute les risques et opportunit&#233;s que le boom a amen&#233; avec soi, ainsi que les dommages caus&#233;s par des politiques anti-drogue des gouvernements de la Bolivie et des &#201;tats-Unis. Laserna appelle cet &#233;pisode historique &#8220;le boom dans la crise&#8221; et dit que combiner de donn&#233;es statistiques et t&#233;moignages individuels est cruciale pour l&#8217;&#233;tudier. Seulement ainsi, croit-il, on peut d&#233;couvrir &#8220;quelles possibilit&#233;s le petit producteur indig&#232;ne de coca avait d&#8217;accumuler de la richesse&#8221; pendant le boom et malgr&#233; la crise.</p><p>Laserna est n&#233;e &#224; Cochabamba, Bolivie, a &#233;tudi&#233; &#233;conomie &#224; l&#8217;UMSS et a fait des &#233;tudes sup&#233;rieures &#224; la FLACSO &#224; Quito et &#224; la University of California &#224; Berkeley. En 1976 il a remport&#233; le prix litt&#233;raire Franz Tamayo avec une histoire courte, &#8220;La sombra que habita&#8221; et en format court il publie &#233;galement dans des journaux et un <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231214154141/https://laserna.wordpress.com/">blog</a> qu&#8217;il tient depuis 2007. Il a &#233;t&#233; professeur d&#8217;&#233;conomie et sociologie &#224; l&#8217;UMSS et a enseign&#233; pendant des p&#233;riodes &#224; la Universidad del Pac&#237;fico, &#224; Lima, et comme professeur invit&#233; &#224; Princeton. Il est investigateur depuis 1981 au Centre pour l&#8217;&#201;tude de la R&#233;alit&#233; &#201;conomique et Sociale (<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231214154539/https://ceresbolivia.org/">CERES</a>) et a &#233;t&#233; directeur de la <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231214154722/https://fundacion-milenio.org/">Fondation Milenio</a> entre 2003-11. En travaillant pour ces think-tanks il a jusqu&#8217;alors publi&#233; un bon nombre de livres, environ dix en solo et plus de douze en collaboration. Les plus connus sont peut-&#234;tre <em>La trampa del rentismo</em> (2006), &#233;crit avec Gordillo et Komadina, et <em>La democracia en el ch&#8217;enko</em> (2004). Le titre que je mets en revue ici est sa th&#232;se de doctorat, qui a &#233;t&#233; soumise en 1995 et reste in&#233;dite &#224; ce jour.</p><h4>Le livre en question</h4><p>La th&#232;se de Laserna est que &#8220;l&#8217;&#233;conomie de la coca-coca&#239;ne&#8221; pourrait &#234;tre mieux abord&#233;e avec des politiques d&#8217;&#233;tat qui l&#8217;acceptent ouvertement et aident &#224; endiguer sa forte volatilit&#233;. Avec ceci il ne conseille pas d&#8217;adopter une strat&#233;gie &#233;tatiste ou de donner le feu vert &#224; la consommation de coca&#239;ne. Il cite les chiffres, qui pr&#233;sentent des divergences mais aussi un certain consensus, et dit que lorsqu&#8217;il existe des opportunit&#233;s commerciales un gouvernement doit promouvoir l&#8217;industrie priv&#233;e, pas la p&#233;naliser. Il dit que si dans les ann&#233;es 1980s ce principe de base n&#8217;a pas &#233;t&#233; suivi, c&#8217;&#233;tait en raison de la pression exerc&#233;e par le gouvernement des &#201;tats-Unis et dans une situation en g&#233;n&#233;ral tr&#232;s difficile. Le gouvernement Bolivien &#224; l&#8217;&#233;poque avait un d&#233;ficit et a eu recours &#224; &#8220;l&#8217;&#233;mission inorganique&#8221; d&#8217;argent pour le financer. En cons&#233;quence, Laserna a trouv&#233; que l&#8217;indice des prix est mont&#233; en fl&#232;che &#224; partir de 1976 et en 1985 le taux d&#8217;inflation annuel &#233;tait de 11,740%. Pour comparaison &#224; d&#8217;autres hyperinflations, celle de Venezuela en 2019 a atteint 340,000%; celle d&#8217;Allemagne en 1923 est dit d&#8217;avoir atteint plus d&#8217;un million pourcent.</p><p>Laserna dit qu&#8217;avant qu&#8217;une industrie agricole soit &#233;tablie dans le Chapare, plusieurs programmes de colonisation ont tent&#233; d&#8217;occuper les basses terres Boliviennes. Cela remonte au 19e si&#232;cle, mais a eu trois jalons importants avec le gouvernement nationaliste (1952), un pr&#234;t de la BID pour occuper Chimor&#233; (1963) et la construction de l&#8217;autoroute Cochabamba-Villa Tunari (1972). La croissance qui a &#233;t&#233; initialement induite est rapidement devenue une tendance naturelle. La r&#233;gion est pass&#233;e de 20,000 habitants en 1967 &#224; 150,000 en 1991, avec le pic le plus &#233;lev&#233; du taux de croissance (29.25%) en 1981, juste un an apr&#232;s l&#8217;augmentation du prix de la coca. La chose insolite &#224; propos cette vague migratoire est qu&#8217;elle a caus&#233; la contraction &#233;conomique de ne pas se r&#233;fl&#233;chir dans le taux de ch&#244;mage, ce qui Laserna dit ne peut qu&#8217;&#234;tre d&#251; &#224; l&#8217;existence d&#8217;activit&#233;s &#8220;non enregistr&#233;es&#8221; et &#8220;capables d&#8217;absorber l&#8217;impact de la r&#233;cession&#8221;.</p><p>Ces activit&#233;s, dit-il, ont grandi depuis les ann&#233;es 1970s et en 1980 avait &#8220;p&#233;n&#233;tr&#233;&#8221; la politique nationale. Le pire moment de la crise (1983-85) a renforc&#233; leur importance. Le secteur repr&#233;sentait au moins 53.4% du PIB en 1986 et 12.9% m&#234;me en 1990. Mais si cette situation &#233;tait connue de tous, elle posait aussi un probl&#232;me diplomatique. Dans les ann&#233;es 1980s les &#201;tats-Unis avaient un probl&#232;me domestique d&#8217;addiction &#224; la coca&#239;ne et ont fait pression pour une r&#233;duction de la culture de coca en Bolivie. Cet accord et d&#8217;autres accords internationaux de contr&#244;le de drogue ont conduit les autorit&#233;s Boliviennes, bien qu&#8217;attir&#233;es par le flux de devises &#233;trang&#232;res g&#233;n&#233;r&#233; par la coca&#239;ne, &#224; promulguer plusieurs lois anti-drogue dans une tentative de montrer leur &#8220;engagement&#8221;. Laserna dit que la loi 1008 (1988) &#233;tait la derni&#232;re et la pire de toutes, et en fait est venu du premier gouvernement non militaire apr&#232;s dix changements pr&#233;sidentiels entre 1978-82. Le probl&#232;me est qu&#8217;elle a bless&#233; les &#233;chelons inf&#233;rieurs du boom de la coca presque exclusivement.</p><p>Des personnes qui auraient autrement &#233;t&#233; durement frapp&#233;es par la r&#233;cession ont pu trouver du travail autur du boom. Que ce soit en tant que producteurs de coca, chimistes ou trafiquants, il s&#8217;agissait de personnes peu instruites, &#226;g&#233;es pour la plupart de 20 &#224; 40 ans et ayant des familles &#224; nourrir. Mais &#224; cause de la loi 1008, ils se sont retrouv&#233;s trop souvent en prison et donc ont &#233;t&#233; &#233;vinc&#233;s de ce qui &#233;tait &#224; l&#8217;origine une activit&#233; profitable. Laserna dit que l&#8217;investissement des revenus &#233;tait g&#233;n&#233;ralement &#8220;orient&#233; vers sortir la famille de l&#8217;agriculture&#8221; car les prix de la coca &#233;taient &#233;lev&#233;s mais instables, et la meilleure client&#232;le &#233;tait tra&#238;tre, voire dangereuse. La culture de la coca en particulier leur procurait des rentr&#233;es d&#8217;argent r&#233;guli&#232;res, mais &#233;tait entach&#233;e d&#8217;incertitudes. D&#8217;o&#249; le fait, lequel Laserna dit est ignor&#233;e, que les cultivateurs de coca n&#8217;ont jamais produit de coca seule. Leur &#8220;crit&#232;re central&#8221;, dit-il, a toujours &#233;t&#233; de diversifier afin de &#8220;minimiser les risques&#8221;.</p><h4>Mon commentaire</h4><p>Ce que Laserna appelle le &#8220;crit&#232;re du producteur diversifi&#233;, qui ne d&#233;cide pas qu&#8217;en fonction du march&#233;&#8221; est saillant. Cela signifie que la pr&#233;sence d&#8217;autres cultures peut &#234;tre vu comme le signe d&#8217;un &#233;tablissement r&#233;ussi, la coca &#233;tant &#8220;l&#8217;axe &#233;conomique&#8221;. De nos jours c&#8217;est toujours cruciale pour la politique Bolivienne. Il y a juste une semaine, le Pr&#233;sident Biden a <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221206210251/https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/biden-says-venezuela-bolivia-not-doing-enough-meet-counternarcotics-obligations-2021-09-15/">dit</a> que le Venezuela et la Bolivie n&#8217;ont pas &#8220;adh&#233;r&#233; &#224; leurs obligations avec d&#8217;accords internationaux anti-narcotiques&#8221; au cours des douze derniers mois, et en r&#233;ponse la Bolivie a rapidement fait entendre le discours de la &#8220;souverainet&#233;&#8221;. D&#233;j&#224;-vu? Mais tout comme hier, aujourd&#8217;hui aussi la souverainet&#233; politique ne garantit pas la souverainet&#233; &#233;conomique, peu importe comment de grossier soit le discours. Les producteurs diversifi&#233;s ont besoin de politiques d&#8217;&#233;tat claires, pas de l&#8217;ambigu&#239;t&#233; avec laquelle la loi 1008 a fait distinction entre la production de coca et coca&#239;ne &#8212; entre l&#8217;agriculture l&#233;gale et ill&#233;gale. Et comme nous l&#8217;avons vu dans ma <a href="https://elresenista.substack.com/p/alison-speddings-mas-partisans-and">revue</a> de Spedding, la loi 906, de 2017, n&#8217;a pas encore y abord&#233;.</p><p>Ce qui est intriguant c&#8217;est qu&#8217;alors que beaucoup accueilleraient probablement la r&#233;pudiation de Laserna de la loi 1008, il n&#8217;est pas certain combiens accepteraient la solution qu&#8217;il propose: &#8220;ouverture des march&#233;s&#8221; et &#8220;d&#233;criminalisation&#8221;. La division autour de cette question traverse de part en part les querelles les plus profondes de la Bolivie. Il serait raisonnable de dire, par exemple, que la Bolivie n&#8217;a aucune raison d&#8217;honorer un accord international au d&#233;triment des producteurs de coca et leur mod&#232;le commercial. Il est facile d&#8217;&#234;tre d&#8217;accord conceptuellement sur cela, mais passer de l&#224; &#224; l&#8217;ouverture et d&#233;criminalisation des march&#233;s serait trop demander, surtout si nous pensons que lorsque Laserna fait sa proposition, il mentionne m&#234;me Gonzalo S&#225;nchez de Lozada et Milton Friedman favorablement. Aucun partisan du MAS, sain d&#8217;esprit, n&#8217;accepterait cela. Pas plus que cette partie &#233;troite mais expressive de leur &#233;lectorat: les intellectuels de gauche. Et c&#8217;est l&#8217;une des choses que ce livre m&#8217;a appris: le discours socialiste Bolivien peut-&#234;tre ne se trompe pas chaque fois qu&#8217;il trouve r&#233;confort dans son illib&#233;ralisme, mais lorsqu&#8217;il s&#8217;agit des producteurs de coca, il est pr&#234;t &#224; se tromper nonobstant leur bien-&#234;tre. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h1>Espa&#241;ol</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AeO8!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc98d6a36-1425-4418-ba79-92819a8b9fb7_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AeO8!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc98d6a36-1425-4418-ba79-92819a8b9fb7_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AeO8!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc98d6a36-1425-4418-ba79-92819a8b9fb7_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AeO8!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc98d6a36-1425-4418-ba79-92819a8b9fb7_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AeO8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc98d6a36-1425-4418-ba79-92819a8b9fb7_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AeO8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc98d6a36-1425-4418-ba79-92819a8b9fb7_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c98d6a36-1425-4418-ba79-92819a8b9fb7_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:276840,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AeO8!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc98d6a36-1425-4418-ba79-92819a8b9fb7_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AeO8!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc98d6a36-1425-4418-ba79-92819a8b9fb7_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AeO8!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc98d6a36-1425-4418-ba79-92819a8b9fb7_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!AeO8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc98d6a36-1425-4418-ba79-92819a8b9fb7_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Refiri&#233;ndose a una tendencia de los 1970s y 1980s, Marjorie Deane y Robert Pringle dicen en su libro <em>The central banks</em> que &#8220;la hiperinflaci&#243;n se asocia m&#225;s a menudo hist&#243;ricamente con Am&#233;rica Latina&#8221;. Por supuesto, la forma en que esto funciona se hace m&#225;s sutil una vez que se profundiza en cada caso particular. En Bolivia, la hiperinflaci&#243;n ocurri&#243; durante el llamado &#8220;boom de la coca&#8221; y justo despu&#233;s de una serie de dictaduras militares. B&#225;nzer y Garc&#237;a Meza, dos de los dictadores, fueron de hecho acusados de estar vinculados con el negocio de la coca&#237;na, que es lo que desencaden&#243; el boom para empezar. Pero el gobierno que sufri&#243; la hiperinflaci&#243;n y el que la solucion&#243; fueron dirigidos respectivamente por Siles y Estenssoro, dos antiguos aliados pol&#237;ticos y los primeros presidentes no militares de los 1980s. Lo que sigue es mi rese&#241;a de la investigaci&#243;n de Laserna sobre este periodo, que sostiene que la hiperinflaci&#243;n y el boom en realidad fueron dos caras de la misma moneda.</p><h4>Primero un breve resumen</h4><p><em>Cultivo de coca, tr&#225;fico de droga y desarrollo regional en Cochabamba, Bolivia </em>es una investigaci&#243;n socioecon&#243;mica sobre el impacto que el boom de la coca&#237;na (1980) y la hiperinflaci&#243;n (1985) tuvieron en la vida campesina en el tr&#243;pico de Cochabamba. En los cap&#237;tulos uno a cinco, el libro subraya el peso del negocio de la coca&#237;na en la econom&#237;a Boliviana y dice c&#243;mo es que surgi&#243; uno de sus motores, el campesino Cochabambino. En los cap&#237;tulos seis a nueve, discute los riesgos y oportunidades que el boom trajo consigo, as&#237; como los da&#241;os provocados por las pol&#237;ticas antidroga de los gobiernos de Bolivia y EEUU. Laserna llama a este episodio hist&#243;rico &#8220;el boom en la crisis&#8221; y dice que combinar datos estad&#237;sticos con testimonios individuales es crucial para estudiarlo. Solo as&#237;, cree, se puede averiguar &#8220;qu&#233; posibilidades tuvo el peque&#241;o productor ind&#237;gena de coca para acumular riqueza&#8221; durante el boom y a pesar de la crisis.</p><p>Laserna naci&#243; en Cochabamba, Bolivia, estudi&#243; econom&#237;a en la UMSS e hizo posgrados en la FLACSO de Quito y la University of California en Berkeley. En 1976 gan&#243; el premio literario Franz Tamayo con un cuento, &#8220;La sombra que habita&#8221;, y en formato corto publica tambi&#233;n en peri&#243;dicos y en un <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231214154141/https://laserna.wordpress.com/">blog</a> que mantiene desde 2007. Fue profesor de econom&#237;a y sociolog&#237;a en la UMSS y ense&#241;&#243; por temporadas en la Universidad del Pac&#237;fico, en Lima, y como profesor invitado en Princeton. Es investigador desde 1981 en el Centro de Estudios de la Realidad Econ&#243;mica y Social (<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231214154539/https://ceresbolivia.org/">CERES</a>) y fue director de la <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231214154722/https://fundacion-milenio.org/">Fundaci&#243;n Milenio</a> entre 2003-11. Trabajando para estos think-tanks ha publicado hasta ahora bastantes libros, unos diez por su cuenta y m&#225;s de doce en colaboraci&#243;n. Los m&#225;s conocidos son quiz&#225;s <em>La trampa del rentismo </em>(2006), escrito con Gordillo y Komadina, y <em>La democracia en el ch&#8217;enko </em>(2004). El libro que rese&#241;o aqu&#237; es su tesis doctoral, que fue presentada en 1995 y a la fecha es a&#250;n in&#233;dita.</p><h4>El libro en cuesti&#243;n</h4><p>La tesis de Laserna es que la &#8220;econom&#237;a de la coca-coca&#237;na&#8221; podr&#237;a mejor abordarse con pol&#237;ticas estatales que la acepten abiertamente y ayuden a frenar su alta volatilidad. Con esto no aconseja adoptar una estrategia estatista ni tampoco dar luz verde al consumo de coca&#237;na. Apunta a las cifras, que arrojaron discrepancias pero tambi&#233;n cierto consenso general, y dice que donde hay oportunidades de negocio un gobierno debe promover la industria privada, no penalizarla. Dice que si en los 1980s este principio b&#225;sico no se sigui&#243;, fue por presi&#243;n del gobierno de EEUU y en una situaci&#243;n en general muy dif&#237;cil. El gobierno Boliviano en ese momento ten&#237;a d&#233;ficit y para financiarlo recurri&#243; a la &#8220;emisi&#243;n inorg&#225;nica&#8221; de dinero. Como resultado, Laserna encontr&#243; que el &#237;ndice de precios se dispar&#243; desde 1976 y para 1985 la tasa de inflaci&#243;n anual era de 11,740%. Para comparaci&#243;n con otras hiperinflaciones, la de Venezuela en 2019 lleg&#243; a 340,000%; la de Alemania en 1923 se dice que alcanz&#243; m&#225;s de un mill&#243;n porciento.</p><p>Laserna dice que antes de establecerse una industria agr&#237;cola en el Chapare varios programas de colonizaci&#243;n intentaron ocupar las tierras bajas Bolivianas. Esto se remonta al siglo 19, pero tuvo tres hitos importantes con el gobierno nacionalista (1952), un pr&#233;stamo del BID para ocupar Chimor&#233; (1963) y la construcci&#243;n de la carretera Cochabamba-Villa Tunari (1972). El crecimiento en principio fomentado velozmente se hizo una tendencia natural. La regi&#243;n pas&#243; de 20,000 habitantes en 1967 a 150,000 en 1991, con el pico m&#225;s alto en la tasa de crecimiento (29.25%) en 1981, justo un a&#241;o despu&#233;s del alza en el precio de la coca. Lo ins&#243;lito de esta ola migratoria es que provoc&#243; que la contracci&#243;n econ&#243;mica no se vea reflejada en la tasa de desempleo, lo que Laserna dice que solo podr&#237;a deberse a la existencia de actividades &#8220;no registradas&#8221; y &#8220;capaces de absorber el impacto de la recesi&#243;n&#8221;.</p><p>Estas actividades, dice, crecieron desde los 1970s y para 1980 hab&#237;an &#8220;penetrado&#8221; la pol&#237;tica nacional. El peor momento de la crisis (1983-85) afianz&#243; su importancia. El sector representaba al menos 53.4% del PIB en 1986 y 12.9% aun en 1990. Pero aunque esto era de conocimiento com&#250;n, tambi&#233;n supon&#237;a un problema diplom&#225;tico. En los 1980s EEUU ten&#237;a un problema dom&#233;stico de adicci&#243;n a la coca&#237;na y presion&#243; para que se reduzca el cultivo de coca en Bolivia. Este y otros acuerdos internacionales de control de drogas hicieron que las autoridades Bolivianas, aunque atra&#237;das por el flujo de moneda extranjera generado por la coca&#237;na, promulguen varias leyes antidroga en un intento de mostrar su &#8220;compromiso&#8221;. Laserna dice que la ley 1008 (1988) fue la &#250;ltima y peor de todas estas, y en realidad vino del primer gobierno no militar luego de diez cambios presidenciales entre 1978-82. El problema es que da&#241;&#243; a los escalones m&#225;s bajos del boom de la coca casi exclusivamente.</p><p>Gente que de otro modo habr&#237;a sido muy afectada por la recesi&#243;n pudo encontrar trabajo alrededor del boom. Ya sea como productores de coca, qu&#237;micos o traficantes, eran gente con baja escolaridad, mayormente entre los 20 a 40 a&#241;os de edad y con familias que alimentar. Pero a causa de la ley 1008, acababan en la c&#225;rcel con demasiada frecuencia y fueron por eso empujadas a abandonar lo que en principio era un negocio lucrativo. Laserna dice que la inversi&#243;n de los r&#233;ditos fue generalmente &#8220;orientada a sacar a la familia de la agricultura&#8221; porque los precios de la coca eran altos pero inestables, y la mejor clientela era traicionera, cuando no peligrosa. El cultivo de coca en particular les daba un flujo de efectivo constante, pero estaba plagado de incertidumbres. De ah&#237; el hecho, que Laserna dice es ignorado, de que los productores de coca nunca produc&#237;an coca solamente. Su &#8220;criterio central&#8221;, dice, fue siempre diversificar para &#8220;minimizar el riesgo&#8221;.</p><h4>Mi comentario</h4><p>Lo que Laserna llama el &#8220;criterio del productor diversificado, que no decide sino en funci&#243;n al mercado&#8221; es notable. Significa que la presencia de otros cultivos puede ser vista como el signo de un asentamiento logrado, con la coca como &#8220;eje econ&#243;mico&#8221;. Hoy d&#237;a esto todav&#237;a es algo cr&#237;tico en la pol&#237;tica Boliviana. Hace solo una semana el Presidente Biden <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221206210251/https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/biden-says-venezuela-bolivia-not-doing-enough-meet-counternarcotics-obligations-2021-09-15/">dijo</a> que Venezuela y Bolivia no &#8220;se adhirieron a sus obligaciones con acuerdos internacionales antinarc&#243;ticos&#8221; en los &#250;ltimos doce meses, y como respuesta Bolivia no tard&#243; en hacer sonar el discurso de la &#8220;soberan&#237;a&#8221;. Un d&#233;j&#224;-vu? Pero al igual que ayer, hoy tambi&#233;n la soberan&#237;a pol&#237;tica no es garant&#237;a de soberan&#237;a econ&#243;mica, por muy soez que sea el discurso. Los productores diversificados necesitan pol&#237;ticas estatales claras, no la ambig&#252;edad con que la ley 1008 distingui&#243; entre producci&#243;n de coca y de coca&#237;na &#8212; entre agricultura legal e ilegal. Y como vimos en mi <a href="https://elresenista.substack.com/p/alison-speddings-mas-partisans-and">rese&#241;a</a> de Spedding, la ley 906, de 2017, a&#250;n no ha aborado esto.</p><p>Lo intrigante es que si bien probablemente cualquiera acoger&#237;a el repudio de Laserna a la ley 1008, es incierto cu&#225;ntos aceptar&#237;an la soluci&#243;n que propone: &#8220;apertura de mercados&#8221; y &#8220;decriminalizaci&#243;n&#8221;. La divisi&#243;n en torno a esta cuesti&#243;n va justo a trav&#233;s de las ri&#241;as m&#225;s sentidas de Bolivia. Ser&#237;a razonable decir, por ejemplo, que Bolivia no tiene por qu&#233; honrar un acuerdo internacional a costa de los productores de coca y su modelo de negocio. Es f&#225;cil estar de acuerdo en eso conceptualmente, pero ir de ah&#237; a abrir y decriminalizar mercados ser&#237;a pedir demasiado, sobre todo si pensamos que cuando Laserna hace su propuesta, incluso menciona a Gonzalo S&#225;nchez de Lozada y Milton Friedman favorablemente. Ning&#250;n partidario del MAS, en su sano juicio, aceptar&#237;a eso. Tampoco lo har&#237;a esa estrecha pero expresiva parte de su electorado: los intelectuales de izquierda. Y esa es una de las cosas que este libro me ha ense&#241;ado: el discurso socialista Boliviano puede no equivocarse cada vez que se solaza en su iliberalismo, pero cuando se trata de los productores de coca, est&#225; dispuesto a equivocarse sin importar el bienestar de ellos. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><blockquote><h4>Reference</h4><p><em>The unpublished doctoral<a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/coca-cultivation-drug-traffic-and-regional-development-in-cochabamba-bolivia/oclc/1184646150&amp;referer=brief_results"> thesis</a> I used for this review.</em></p><p><em>Last updated on 31 January 2024.</em></p></blockquote>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Liberal or communal citizenry?: An empirical approach to everyday management of economic resources - by Edgar Cala]]></title><description><![CDATA[#BookReview #ElAlto]]></description><link>https://erblog.net/p/edgar-calas-liberal-or-communal-citizenship</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://erblog.net/p/edgar-calas-liberal-or-communal-citizenship</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[ER]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 30 Aug 2021 11:00:37 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N-pV!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb8429bab-ffa4-43ec-8b0d-1960c1982aa1_2000x2000.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<blockquote><h4>This review can be read in:</h4><p><em>English</em></p><p><em>Fran&#231;ais</em></p><p><em>Espa&#241;ol</em></p></blockquote><div><hr></div><h1>English</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N-pV!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb8429bab-ffa4-43ec-8b0d-1960c1982aa1_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N-pV!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb8429bab-ffa4-43ec-8b0d-1960c1982aa1_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N-pV!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb8429bab-ffa4-43ec-8b0d-1960c1982aa1_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N-pV!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb8429bab-ffa4-43ec-8b0d-1960c1982aa1_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N-pV!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb8429bab-ffa4-43ec-8b0d-1960c1982aa1_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N-pV!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb8429bab-ffa4-43ec-8b0d-1960c1982aa1_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/b8429bab-ffa4-43ec-8b0d-1960c1982aa1_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:259839,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N-pV!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb8429bab-ffa4-43ec-8b0d-1960c1982aa1_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N-pV!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb8429bab-ffa4-43ec-8b0d-1960c1982aa1_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N-pV!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb8429bab-ffa4-43ec-8b0d-1960c1982aa1_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N-pV!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb8429bab-ffa4-43ec-8b0d-1960c1982aa1_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Here Cala is referring to the fact that El Alto&#8217;s trade unionism does not allow retail merchants to control more than one sales stand, much less rent the extra ones they do have on the low. But this rule isn&#8217;t fully observed beyond the formal realm, as he says, and that is an eloquent detail about the double attitude that El Alto&#8217;s unionism has with regards to liberal economics. All matters of ethics aside, it&#8217;s an attitude that discourages entrepreneurial investment because rejecting profit in absence (i.e. renting) means looking at passive income with a presumptuous grimace. Now, how much is it worth doing so while closing &#8220;sort of secret pacts&#8221; underneath? Making renting legal would help regulate its profits and collect taxes on it. Wouldn&#8217;t that be a good thing? The following is my review of Cala&#8217;s take on this issue, which I agree to disagree with. I hope you&nbsp;figure out a position too, and join the debate.</p><h4>First a little overview</h4><p><em>Liberal or communal citizenry?: An empirical approach to everyday management of economic resources and use of political power within organizations in the city of El Alto, Bolivia</em> is a sociological research on the politics of retail merchants in the city of El Alto. It is originally a master&#8217;s thesis. It has three chapters, but the first and last ones really surround a centerpiece, which is a case study on the Association of Retail Merchants in Diverse Goods &#8220;Central 12 de Octubre&#8221;. Cala conducted interviews with members of this association in search of characteristics more or less common to all trade unionism in El Alto. His goal was to show with his own field work that the &#8220;communal logic&#8221; of power can democratize Bolivian politics, but only after solving its underlying problem: the &#8220;clash&#8221; between two &#8220;civilizing matrices&#8221;, the liberal and communal one. For Cala, who advocates the second of these, this clash is an unresolved problem and is &#8220;one of the expressions of our time&#8221;.</p><p>Cala was born in El Alto, Bolivia, into a merchant family that participated in the founding of the Central 12 de Octubre. He studied sociology at UMSA and did postgraduate studies at the Universidad Andina Sim&#243;n Bol&#237;var, based in Sucre, and later the Universidad Nacional Siglo XX, from Llallagua, Potos&#237;. At one point he was a close colleague of former Governor Felix Patzi, with whom he actually co-founded the <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240115171530/https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tercersistema.net%2F">MTS</a> party, where he has participated since the beginning of the 21st century. During the 2015-20 term, when Patzi was governor, Cala joined as a departmental assemblyman for La Paz along with several other members of MTS. A year later, however, in an interview available in his YouTube channel, he publicly declared himself to be a &#8220;dissident&#8221; because he found Patzi &#8220;incongruent&#8221; with the proposal of the party they had founded together. In addition to this brief political excursion, Cala is a professor at UPEA since 2007 and has published at least two books as of this post. The first edition of <em>Liberal or communal citizenry?</em> is from 2014, but the master&#8217;s thesis exists since 2011 and here I used the unpublished version.</p><h4>The book in question</h4><p>Cala&#8217;s thesis is that El Alto&#8217;s unionism is a new and positive form of organization, with &#8220;originary indigenous&#8221; features that were adapted to the urban context and whose current problems are indisputably exogenous. He says the communal logic is a &#8220;coupling&#8221; of agrarian unionism to the needs of retail trade, and that it gave rise to the oldest and most prosperous neighborhoods in El Alto. He locates this wave of growth between the 1970-90 decades, which, as is well known among Bolivian urbanists, is when the country suffered a severe altiplanic drought (1982-83) and when supreme decree <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231211215609/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-DS-21060.xhtml">21060</a> was enacted (1985). In other words, Cala agrees with the common idea that the &#8220;neoliberal&#8221; economic model adopted at the end of the 20th century is responsible for the peasant migration that made El Alto one of the poorest, most populated cities in the country.</p><p>The figures he cites seem to support his position. Between 1976 and 2005, El Alto&#8217;s population increased tenfold, from 100,000 to about a million inhabitants. However, Cala says, until the year 2000 &#8220;69.4% of El Alto&#8217;s households did not have sewerage&#8221; and &#8220;only 66% had a connection to potable water&#8221;. In view of such precariousness, he explains that Alte&#241;o entrepreneurship took two lines of action. On the one hand, it adopted the trade union as &#8220;a fatherly force&#8221; to protect it against abuses by the state or other social forces. On the other, it found &#8220;a scenario of opportunities&#8221; by occupying public space to trade retail merchandise. Cala says it was this recipe that shaped the city, starting with its points of junction with the neighboring (and much older) city of La Paz, such as Villa 16 de Julio, Ballivi&#225;n, Villa Dolores, Villa Bol&#237;var, Villa Santiago and of course also 12 de Octubre.</p><p>In 2011, Cala collected a total of 22 interviews with members of the eponymous Central 12 de Octubre, a union established on Tiahuanacu Avenue, 1.5km east of El Alto International Airport. In the mid 1980s, these merchants took advantage of the disuse of the rails to Viacha in order to set up stalls there in exchange for a &#8220;sitting&#8221; fee that was charged by municipal authorities. Later this changed with the increasing control of the spaces occupied by each organization and the installation of proper stands. The &#8220;sitting&#8221; fee then became an annual &#8220;patent&#8221; fee, that is, a right to exercise private commercial &#8220;control&#8221; over public property, which effectively formalized the union&#8217;s existence before the municipal government. According to Cala&#8217;s informants, this trajectory is similar in other cases and, in all of them, the capacity that a union proved to have for concentrating money has brought with it an undesired effect.</p><p>It is at this point that Cala defends the &#8220;communal logic&#8221; to the detriment of the &#8220;liberal&#8221; one, and his reason for doing so is very curious indeed. He says that the &#8220;optative character&#8221; of liberal democracy is no good, that he prefers the &#8220;imperative character&#8221; of communal democracy, because it is precisely in the option that one finds the seed of individualism and theft. He believes communal democracy can prevent this bad seed from turning up because it can revoke ill-gotten authority, and above all, because it can force each and every member to assume and leave leadership positions on a rotating basis. According to some of Cala&#8217;s informants, this mandatory rotation system takes valuable time away from their hands, time they could otherwise use working their business. But according to him, the only antidote to the concentration of power is mandatory rotation amongst <em>all</em> union members, without exception. Both literally and figuratively, he says it is a &#8220;social technology&#8221; to inhibit individual pretensions that are &#8220;Western liberal&#8221; in nature.</p><h4>My commentary</h4><p>Cala&#8217;s vision of El Alto&#8217;s trade union politics is quite sensitive and unerring in most respects. It is difficult to disagree with it, but unfortunately it must be done. One of his informants, to take an example, tells us that in their union they prevented the abusive use of money by distributing it among all associates. In this way, they made the concentration of money so impractical that they managed to discourage any attempt of theft by the leaders. And may Cala correct me if I&#8217;m wrong, but the so-called Law of Municipalities or the Law of Popular Participation, from 1985 and 1994 respectively, sought to deconcentrate central government power basically in the same way. The question is whether because they come out of Bolivia&#8217;s &#8220;neoliberal&#8221; period, these laws must necessarily be seen as &#8220;individualistic&#8221; rather then &#8220;communal&#8221;.</p><p>I believe Cala does not ignore these gray zones either, otherwise he himself wouldn&#8217;t distinguish between &#8220;individual&#8221; and &#8220;elitist&#8221; attitudes. He wouldn&#8217;t say a federation&#8217;s decisions are often &#8220;arbitrary and vertical&#8221;, but that if they don&#8217;t wish to lose its protection against the state and other unions, associates have no other choice but to comply. The fact is authoritarianism is a bad seed alright, but no logic is going to get rid of it by blaming everything on foreign influences. As another informant puts it: &#8220;there is always a small elite, isn&#8217;t there; everywhere; they are eternal orators&#8221;. So in this case we should worry less about origins and more about what Cala himself calls &#8220;operative mechanisms&#8221;. That way the state can be less of an enemy, the federation less of a bunker and individuals less of a liability. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h1>Fran&#231;ais</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IwTa!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42aacedd-37b5-496d-bff2-cd2d6243162c_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IwTa!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42aacedd-37b5-496d-bff2-cd2d6243162c_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IwTa!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42aacedd-37b5-496d-bff2-cd2d6243162c_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IwTa!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42aacedd-37b5-496d-bff2-cd2d6243162c_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IwTa!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42aacedd-37b5-496d-bff2-cd2d6243162c_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IwTa!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42aacedd-37b5-496d-bff2-cd2d6243162c_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/42aacedd-37b5-496d-bff2-cd2d6243162c_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:279658,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IwTa!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42aacedd-37b5-496d-bff2-cd2d6243162c_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IwTa!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42aacedd-37b5-496d-bff2-cd2d6243162c_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IwTa!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42aacedd-37b5-496d-bff2-cd2d6243162c_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!IwTa!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F42aacedd-37b5-496d-bff2-cd2d6243162c_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Ci-dessus Cala fait r&#233;f&#233;rence au fait que le syndicalisme d&#8217;El Alto ne permet pas aux marchands au d&#233;tail de contr&#244;ler plus d&#8217;un stand de vente, et encore moins de louer ceux qu&#8217;ils ont en plus en cachette. Mais cette r&#232;gle n&#8217;est pas respect&#233;e au-del&#224; du domaine formel, comme il le dit, et ce d&#233;tail est &#233;loquent sur la double attitude du syndicalisme d&#8217;El Alto vis-&#224;-vis l&#8217;&#233;conomie lib&#233;rale. Toute question d&#8217;&#233;thique mise &#224; part, il s&#8217;agit d&#8217;une attitude qui emp&#234;che l&#8217;investissement entrepreneurial car rejeter le profit en absence (c&#8217;est-&#224;-dire la location) signifie regarder les revenus passifs avec une grimace m&#233;prisante. Alors, &#224; quel point cela vaut-il la peine de le faire tout en fermant des &#8220;sortes de pactes secrets&#8221; en dessous? Rendre la location l&#233;gale permettrait de r&#233;guler ses profits et de collecter des imp&#244;ts sur ceux-ci. Ne serait-ce pas une bonne chose? Ce qui suit est ma revue de la position de Cala sur cette question, avec laquelle je conviens de ne pas &#234;tre d&#8217;accord. J&#8217;esp&#233;re que vous pourrez &#233;galement prendre une position, et participez au d&#233;bat.</p><h4>D&#8217;abord un bref r&#233;sum&#233;</h4><p><em>Citoyennet&#233; lib&#233;rale ou communautaire?: Une approche empirique au management quotidien des ressources &#233;conomiques et de l&#8217;utilisation du pouvoir politique dedans les organisations de la cit&#233; d&#8217;El Alto, Bolivie </em>est une enqu&#234;te sociologique sur la politique des marchands au d&#233;tail dans la cit&#233; d&#8217;El Alto. Il s&#8217;agit originalement d&#8217;une th&#232;se de ma&#238;trise. Il a trois chapitres, mais les premier et dernier entourent vraiment une pi&#232;ce centrale, qui est une &#233;tude de cas de l&#8217;Asociaci&#243;n de Marchands au D&#233;tail en Produits Divers &#8220;Central 12 de Octubre&#8221;. Cala a interview&#233; des membres de cette association &#224; la recherche de caract&#233;ristiques plus ou moins communes &#224; l&#8217;ensemble du syndicalisme d&#8217;El Alto. Son objectif est de montrer par son propre travail de terrain que la &#8220;logique communautaire&#8221; du pouvoir peut d&#233;mocratiser la politique Bolivienne, mais seulement apr&#232;s avoir r&#233;solu son probl&#232;me sous-jacent: le &#8220;choc&#8221; entre deux &#8220;matrices civilisatrices&#8221;, la lib&#233;rale et la communautaire. Pour Cala, qui plaide en faveur de cette derni&#232;re, ce choc est un probl&#232;me non r&#233;solu et &#8220;l'une des expressions de notre temps&#8221;.</p><p>Cala est n&#233; &#224; El Alto, Bolivie, dans une famille de marchands qui a particip&#233; &#224; la fondation de la Central 12 de Octubre. Il a &#233;tudi&#233; sociologie &#224; l&#8217;UMSA et a fait des &#233;tudes sup&#233;rieures &#224; l&#8217;Universidad Andina Sim&#243;n Bol&#237;var, situ&#233;e &#224; Sucre, et puis &#224; l&#8217;Universidad Nacional Siglo XX, de Llallagua, Potos&#237;. &#192; un moment donn&#233; il &#233;tait un proche coll&#232;gue de l&#8217;ancien Gouverneur F&#233;lix Patzi, avec qui il a en fait co-fond&#233; le parti <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240115171530/https://www.tercersistema.net/">MTS</a>, auquel il a particip&#233; depuis le d&#233;but du 21e si&#232;cle. Au cours du mandat 2015-20, lorsque Patzi &#233;tait gouverneur, Cala a rejoint comme d&#233;put&#233; d&#233;partemental pour La Paz avec plusieurs autres membres du MTS. Un an plus tard, cependant, dans une entretien disponible sur sa cha&#238;ne YouTube, il se d&#233;clare publiquement &#8220;dissident&#8221; car il trouve Patzi &#8220;incongru&#8221; avec la proposition du parti qu&#8217;ils avaient fond&#233; ensemble. En plus de ce bref excursion politique, Cala est professeur &#224; l&#8217;UPEA depuis 2007 et a publi&#233; au moins deux livres &#224; la date de ce post. La premi&#232;re &#233;dition de <em>Citoyennet&#233; lib&#233;rale ou communautaire?</em> est de 2014, mais la th&#232;se de ma&#238;trise existe d&#233;j&#224; depuis 2011 et j&#8217;ai utilis&#233; ici la version in&#233;dite.</p><h4>Le livre en question</h4><p>La th&#232;se de Cala est que le syndicalisme d&#8217;El Alto est une forme d&#8217;organisation nouvelle et positive, avec des caract&#233;ristiques &#8220;indig&#232;nes originaires&#8221; qui ont &#233;t&#233; adapt&#233;es au contexte urbain et dont les probl&#232;mes actuels sont indiscutablement exog&#232;nes. Il dit que la logique communale est un &#8220;couplage&#8221; du syndicalisme agraire aux besoins du commerce au d&#233;tail, et qu&#8217;elle a donn&#233; naissance aux quartiers les plus anciens et prosp&#232;res d&#8217;El Alto. Il situe cette vague de croissance entre les d&#233;cennies 1970-90, qui, comme on le sait entre les urbanistes Boliviens, est quand le pays a subi une grave s&#233;cheresse altiplanique (1982-83) et quand le d&#233;cret supr&#234;me <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231211215609/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-DS-21060.xhtml">21060</a> a &#233;t&#233; promulgu&#233; (1985). Autrement dit, Cala est d&#8217;accord pour dire que le mod&#232;le  &#233;conomique &#8220;n&#233;olib&#233;ral&#8221; adopt&#233; &#224; la fin du 20e si&#232;cle est responsable de la migration des paysans qui a fait d&#8217;El Alto l&#8217;une des villes les plus peupl&#233;es et pauvres du pays.</p><p>Les chiffres qu&#8217;il cite semblent appuyer sa position. Entre 1976 et 2005, la population d&#8217;El Alto a &#233;t&#233; multipli&#233;e au d&#233;cuple, passant de 100,000 &#224; pr&#232;s d&#8217;un million d&#8217;habitants. Cependant, dit Cala, jusqu&#8217;en 2000, &#8220;69.4% des maisons d&#8217;El Alto n&#8217;avaient pas d&#8217;&#233;gouts&#8221; et &#8220;seulement 66% &#233;taient raccord&#233;s &#224; l&#8217;eau potable&#8221;. Face &#224; telle pr&#233;carit&#233;, il explique que l&#8217;esprit d&#8217;entreprise d&#8217;El Alto a adopt&#233; deux lignes d&#8217;action. D&#8217;une part, il a adopt&#233; le syndicat comme &#8220;une force paternelle&#8221; qui le prot&#232;ge contre les abus de l&#8216;&#233;tat ou d&#8217;autres forces sociales. D&#8217;autre part, il a trouv&#233; &#8220;un sc&#233;nario d&#8217;opportunit&#233;s&#8221; en occupant l&#8217;espace public pour vendre des produits au d&#233;tail. Cala dit que c&#8217;est cette recette qu&#8217;a fa&#231;onn&#233; la cit&#233;, en commen&#231;ant par ses points de jonction avec la voisine (et beaucoup plus ancienne) cit&#233; de La Paz, comme  Villa 16 de Julio, Ballivi&#225;n, Villa Dolores, Villa Bol&#237;var, Villa Santiago et aussi 12 de Octubre.</p><p>En 2011, Cala a recueilli un total de 22 entretiens avec des membres de l&#8217;&#233;ponyme Central 12 de Octubre, un syndicat situ&#233; sur l&#8217;Avenue Tiahuanacu, &#224; 1.5km &#224; l&#8217;est de l&#8217;A&#233;roport International d&#8217;El Alto. Au milieu des ann&#233;es 1980s, ces marchands ont profit&#233; de la d&#233;ssu&#233;tude des rails menant &#224; Viacha pour y installer des &#233;tals en &#233;change d&#8217;un frais de &#8220;s&#8217;asseoir&#8221; per&#231;u par les autorit&#233;s municipales. Cela a ensuite chang&#233; avec le contr&#244;le croissant des espaces occup&#233;s par chaque organisation et l&#8217;installation de stands approppri&#233;s. Le frais de &#8220;s&#8217;asseoir&#8221; est ensuite devenu un frais annuel de &#8220;brevet&#8221;, c&#8217;est-&#224;-dire, un droit pour exercer du &#8220;contr&#244;le&#8221; priv&#233; et commercial sur la propri&#233;t&#233; publique, ce qui a effectivement formalis&#233; l&#8217;existence du syndicat devant le gouvernement municipal. Selon les informateurs de Cala, cette trajectoire est similaire dans d&#8217;autres cas et, dans chacun d&#8217;eux, la capacit&#233; que chaque syndicat a prouv&#233; avoir &#224; concentrer de l&#8217;argent a entra&#238;n&#233; avec elle un effet ind&#233;sirable.</p><p>C&#8217;est &#224; ce point que Cala d&#233;fend la &#8220;logique communautaire&#8221; au d&#233;triment de la &#8220;lib&#233;rale&#8221;, et la raison pour laquelle il le fait est certainement tr&#232;s curieuse. Il dit que le &#8220;caract&#232;re optatif&#8221; de la d&#233;mocratie lib&#233;rale n&#8217;est pas bon, qu&#8217;il pr&#233;f&#232;re le &#8220;caract&#232;re imp&#233;ratif&#8221; de la d&#233;mocratie communale, car c&#8217;est pr&#233;cis&#233;ment dans le choix que se trouve la graine de l&#8217;individualisme et du vol. Il croi que la d&#233;mocratie communale peut emp&#234;cher l&#8217;apparition de cette mauvaise graine car elle peut r&#233;voquer l&#8217;autorit&#233; mal acquise, et surtout, car elle peut obliger chaque membre &#224; prendre et quitter des postes de direction &#224; tour de r&#244;le. Selon certains des informateurs de Cala, ce syst&#232;me de rotation obligatoire leur anl&#232;ve du temps pr&#233;cieux, temps qu&#8217;ils pourraient autrement utiliser pour travailler leur m&#233;tier. Mais selon lui, le seul antidote &#224; la concentration du pouvoir est la rotation obligatoire parmi <em>tous</em> les membres du syndicat, sans exception. Au sens propre et aussi figur&#233;, il dit qu&#8217;il s&#8217;agit d&#8217;une &#8220;technologie sociale&#8221; qui inhibe les pr&#233;tentions individuelles de caract&#232;re &#8220;lib&#233;ral occidental&#8221;.</p><h4>Mon commentaire</h4><p>La vision de Cala sur la politique syndicale d&#8217;El Alto est assez sensible et pr&#233;cise &#224; la plupart des &#233;gards. Il est difficile de ne pas &#234;tre d&#8217;accord, mais malheureusement il faut le faire. L&#8217;un de ses informateurs, pour prendre un exemple, dit qu&#8217;&#224; son syndicat on emp&#234;chait l&#8217;utilisation abusive de l&#8217;argent en le distribuant entre tous les associ&#233;s. De cette mani&#232;re, ils ont rendu la concentration d&#8217;argent si peu pratique qu&#8217;ils ont r&#233;ussi &#224; d&#233;courager toute tentative de vol de la part des dirigeants. Et que Cala me corrige si je me trompe, mais la soi-disant Loi des Municipalit&#233;s ou la Loi de Participation Populaire, de 1985 et 1994 respectivement, ont cherch&#233; &#224; d&#233;concentrer le pouvoir du gouvernement central essentiellement de la m&#234;me mani&#232;re. La question est de savoir si parce qu&#8217;elles vient de la p&#233;riode &#8220;n&#233;olib&#233;rale&#8221; en Bolivie, ces lois doivent n&#233;cessairement &#234;tre vues comme &#8220;individualistes&#8221; plut&#244;t que &#8220;communautaires&#8221;.</p><p>Je crois que Cala n&#8217;ignore pas non plus ces zones grises, autrement il ne ferait pas lui-m&#234;me de distinction entre des attitudes &#8220;individuelles&#8221; et &#8220;&#233;litistes&#8221;. Il ne dirait pas que les d&#233;cisions d&#8217;une f&#233;d&#233;ration sont souvent &#8220;arbitraires et verticales&#8221;, mais que s&#8217;ils ne veulent pas perdre sa protection contre l&#8217;&#233;tat et d&#8217;autres syndicats, les associ&#233;s n&#8217;ont pas d&#8217;autre choix que de s&#8217;y conformer. Le fait est que l&#8217;autoritarisme est une mauvaise graine d&#8217;accord, mais aucune logique ne va s&#8217;en d&#233;barrasser en l&#8217;imputant tout &#224; des influences &#233;trang&#232;res. Comme le dit un autre informateur: &#8220;il y a toujours une petit &#233;lite, n&#8217;est-ce pas; partout; ce sont des orateurs &#233;ternels&#8221;. Donc dans ce cas nous devrions moins nous pr&#233;occuper des origines et plus de ce que Cala lui-m&#234;me appelle des &#8220;m&#233;canismes op&#233;rationnels&#8221;. De cette fa&#231;on l&#8217;&#233;tat peut &#234;tre moins ennemi, la f&#233;d&#233;ration moins bunker et l&#8217;individu moins fardeau. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h1>Espa&#241;ol</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!49dx!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F76a2882c-0e3e-4b6f-b9bd-03cb610efb57_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!49dx!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F76a2882c-0e3e-4b6f-b9bd-03cb610efb57_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!49dx!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F76a2882c-0e3e-4b6f-b9bd-03cb610efb57_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!49dx!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F76a2882c-0e3e-4b6f-b9bd-03cb610efb57_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!49dx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F76a2882c-0e3e-4b6f-b9bd-03cb610efb57_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!49dx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F76a2882c-0e3e-4b6f-b9bd-03cb610efb57_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/76a2882c-0e3e-4b6f-b9bd-03cb610efb57_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:302856,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!49dx!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F76a2882c-0e3e-4b6f-b9bd-03cb610efb57_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!49dx!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F76a2882c-0e3e-4b6f-b9bd-03cb610efb57_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!49dx!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F76a2882c-0e3e-4b6f-b9bd-03cb610efb57_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!49dx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F76a2882c-0e3e-4b6f-b9bd-03cb610efb57_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Aqu&#237; arriba Cala se refiere al hecho de que el gremialismo Alte&#241;o no permite a los comerciantes minoristas controlar m&#225;s de un puesto de venta, mucho menos alquilar los extras que s&#237; llegan a tener a escondidas. Pero esta regla no se cumple del todo m&#225;s all&#225; del &#225;mbito formal, como dice &#233;l, y ese es un detalle elocuente sobre la actitud doble que tiene el gremialismo Alte&#241;o con respecto a la econom&#237;a liberal. Dejando a un lado toda cuesti&#243;n &#233;tica, es una actitud que impide la inversi&#243;n emprendedora porque rechazar la ganancia en ausencia (o sea el alquiler) significa mirar al ingreso pasivo con una mueca arrogante. Ahora bien, qu&#233; tanto vale la pena hacerlo mientras se hace &#8220;una especie de pactos secretos&#8221; por lo bajo? Legalizar el alquiler ayudar&#237;a a regular sus ganancias y recaudar impuestos sobre ellas. No ser&#237;a eso algo bueno? Lo que sigue es mi rese&#241;a de la postura que tiene Cala sobre este tema, con la que estoy de acuerdo en disentir. Espero que tomen tambi&#233;n una posici&#243;n, y participen del debate.</p><h4>Primero un breve resumen</h4><p><em>Ciudadan&#237;a liberal o comunal?: Un acercamiento emp&#237;rico a la gesti&#243;n cotidiana de recursos econ&#243;micos y el uso de poder pol&#237;tico en organizaciones de la ciudad de El Alto, Bolivia </em>es una investigaci&#243;n sociol&#243;gica sobre la pol&#237;tica de comerciantes minoristas en la ciudad de El Alto. Originalmente es una tesis de maestr&#237;a. Tiene tres cap&#237;tulos, pero el primero y &#250;ltimo en verdad rodean una pieza central, que es un estudio de caso sobre la Asociaci&#243;n de Comerciantes Minoristas en Art&#237;culos Varios &#8220;Central 12 de Octubre&#8221;. Cala hizo entrevistas a miembros de esta asociaci&#243;n en busca de caracter&#237;sticas m&#225;s o menos comunes a todo el gremialismo Alte&#241;o. Su meta era mostrar con su propio trabajo de campo que la &#8220;l&#243;gica comunal&#8221; del poder puede democratizar a la pol&#237;tica Boliviana, pero solo tras resolver su problema de fondo: el &#8220;choque&#8221; entre dos &#8220;matrices civilizatorias&#8221;, la liberal y la comunal. Para Cala, quien aboga por la segunda de estas, este choque es un problema irresuelto y es &#8220;una de las expresiones de nuestro tiempo&#8221;.</p><p>Cala naci&#243; en El Alto, Bolivia, en una familia de comerciantes que particip&#243; en la fundaci&#243;n de la Central 12 de Octubre. Estudi&#243; sociolog&#237;a en la UMSA e hizo estudios de posgrado en la Universidad Andina Sim&#243;n Bol&#237;var, con sede en Sucre, y luego en la Universidad Nacional Siglo XX, de Llallagua, Potos&#237;. En cierto punto fue colega cercano del ex Gobernador F&#233;lix Patzi, con quien de hecho co-fund&#243; el partido <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240115171530/https://www.tercersistema.net/">MTS</a>, donde ha participado desde inicios del siglo 21. En la gesti&#243;n 2015-20, cuando Patzi fue gobernador, Cala ingres&#243; como asamble&#237;sta departamental de La Paz junto a varios otros miembros del MTS. Un a&#241;o despu&#233;s, sin embargo, en una entrevista disponible en su canal de YouTube, declar&#243; p&#250;blicamente ser &#8220;disidente&#8221; porque encontraba a Patzi &#8220;incongruente&#8221; con la propuesta del partido que hab&#237;an fundado juntos. Adem&#225;s de este breve excurso pol&#237;tico, Cala es profesor en la UPEA desde 2007 y ha publicado al menos dos libros a la fecha de este post. La primera edici&#243;n de <em>Ciudadan&#237;a liberal o comunal?</em> es de 2014, pero la tesis de maestr&#237;a existe ya desde 2011 y aqu&#237; he usado la versi&#243;n in&#233;dita.</p><h4>El libro en cuesti&#243;n</h4><p>La tesis de Cala es que el gremialismo Alte&#241;o es una forma de organizaci&#243;n nueva y positiva, con rasgos &#8220;ind&#237;gena originarios&#8221; que fueron adaptados al contexto urbano y cuyos problemas actuales son indiscutiblemente ex&#243;genos. Dice que la l&#243;gica comunal es un &#8220;acoplamiento&#8221; del sindicalismo agrario a las necesidades del comercio minorista, y que dio origen a los m&#225;s antiguos y pr&#243;speros barrios de El Alto. Ubica esta ola de crecimiento entre las d&#233;cadas 1970-90, que, como es sabido entre urbanistas Bolivianos, es cuando el pa&#237;s sufri&#243; una severa sequ&#237;a altipl&#225;nica (1982-83) y cuando el decreto supremo <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231211215609/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-DS-21060.xhtml">21060</a> fue promulgado (1985). O sea, Cala est&#225; de acuerdo con la idea com&#250;n de que el modelo econ&#243;mico &#8220;neoliberal&#8221; que se adopt&#243; a fines del siglo 20 es responsable de la migraci&#243;n campesina que hizo de El Alto una de las m&#225;s pobres y pobladas ciudades en el pa&#237;s.</p><p>Las cifras que cita parecen respaldar su posici&#243;n. Entre 1976 y 2005, la poblaci&#243;n de El Alto se multiplic&#243; por diez, de 100,000 a casi un mill&#243;n de habitantes. Sin embargo, dice Cala, hasta el a&#241;o 2000 &#8220;el 69.4% de las viviendas alte&#241;as no contaba con alcantarillado&#8221; y &#8220;solo el 66% ten&#237;a conexi&#243;n a agua potable&#8221;. En vista de tal precariedad, explica que el emprendimiento Alte&#241;o tom&#243; dos l&#237;neas de acci&#243;n. Por un lado, adopt&#243; al gremio como &#8220;una fuerza paternal&#8221; que lo protege contra abusos del estado u otras fuerzas sociales. Por otro, encontr&#243; &#8220;un escenario de oportunidades&#8221; en ocupar el espacio p&#250;blico para comerciar mercader&#237;a al por menor. Cala dice que fue esta receta la que dio forma a la ciudad, empezando por sus puntos de entronque con la vecina (y mucho m&#225;s antigua) ciudad de La Paz, tales como Villa 16 de Julio, Ballivi&#225;n, Villa Dolores, Villa Bol&#237;var, Villa Santiago y por supuesto tambi&#233;n 12 de Octubre.</p><p>En 2011, Cala recogi&#243; un total de 22 entrevistas con miembros de la ep&#243;nima Central 12 de Octubre, un gremio ubicado en la Avenida Tiahuanacu, a 1.5km al este del Aeropuerto Internacional de El Alto. A mediados de los 1980s, estos comerciantes aprovecharon el desuso de las rieles hacia Viacha para poner all&#237; puestos de venta a cambio de una cuota de &#8220;sentaje&#8221; que era cobrada por autoridades municipales. Luego esto cambi&#243; con el creciente control de los espacios ocupados por cada organizaci&#243;n y la instalaci&#243;n de anaqueles m&#225;s adecuados. La cuota de &#8220;sentaje&#8221; pas&#243; entonces a ser una cuota anual de &#8220;patente&#8221;, o sea, un derecho a ejercer &#8220;control&#8221; privado y comercial sobre propiedad p&#250;blica, cosa que efectivamente formaliz&#243; la existencia del gremio ante el gobierno municipal. Seg&#250;n los informantes de Cala, esta trayectoria es similar en otros casos y, en todos ellos, la capacidad que un gremio demostr&#243; tener para concentrar dinero ha tra&#237;do consigo un efecto no deseado.</p><p>Es en este punto que Cala defiende la &#8220;l&#243;gica comunal&#8221; en desmedro de la &#8220;liberal&#8221;, y su motivo para hacerlo es muy curioso en verdad. Dice que el &#8220;car&#225;cter optativo&#8221; de la democracia liberal no es algo bueno, que &#233;l prefiere el &#8220;car&#225;cter imperativo&#8221; de la democracia comunal, porque justamente en la opci&#243;n est&#225; la semilla del individualismo y el robo. &#201;l cree que la democracia comunal puede evitar que esta mala semilla aparezca porque es capaz de revocar la autoridad mal habida, y sobre todo, porque puede obligar a cada integrante a asumir y dejar los cargos dirigenciales rotativamente. Seg&#250;n algunos de los informantes de Cala, este sistema de rotaci&#243;n obligatoria quita valioso tiempo de sus manos, tiempo que de otro modo podr&#237;an usar trabajando su oficio. Pero seg&#250;n &#233;l, el &#250;nico ant&#237;doto a la concentraci&#243;n de poder es la rotaci&#243;n obligatoria entre <em>todos</em> los miembros del sindicato, sin excepci&#243;n. En sentido literal y figurativo, dice que es una &#8220;tecnolog&#237;a social&#8221; que inhibe las pretensiones individuales de tipo &#8220;liberal occidental&#8221;.</p><h4>Mi comentario</h4><p>La visi&#243;n de Cala sobre la pol&#237;tica gremial Alte&#241;a es bastante sensible y certera en su mayor parte. Es dif&#237;cil disentir con ella, pero lamentablemente hay que hacerlo. Uno de sus informantes, por tomar un ejemplo, cuenta que en su gremio impidieron el uso abusivo de dinero reparti&#233;ndolo entre todos los asociados. De esta forma, hicieron la concentraci&#243;n de dinero tan impr&#225;ctica que lograron desincentivar cualquier intento de robo por parte de dirigentes. Y que Cala me corrija si me equivoco, pero la llamada Ley de Municipalidades o la Ley de Participaci&#243;n Popular, de 1985 y 1994 respectivamente, buscaban desconcentrar el poder del gobierno central b&#225;sicamente de la misma forma. La cuesti&#243;n es si es que porque vienen del periodo &#8220;neoliberal&#8221; de Bolivia, estas leyes tienen forzosamente que ser vistas como &#8220;individualistas&#8221; en vez de &#8220;comunales&#8221;.</p><p>Creo que Cala tampoco ignora estas zonas grises, de lo contrario &#233;l mismo no distinguir&#237;a entre actitudes &#8220;individuales&#8221; y &#8220;elitarias&#8221;. No dir&#237;a que las decisiones de una federaci&#243;n son a menudo &#8220;arbitrarias y verticales&#8221;, pero que si no quieren perder su protecci&#243;n contra el estado y otros gremios, los asociados no tienen otra opci&#243;n que acatar. El hecho es que el autoritarismo es una mala semilla s&#237;, pero ninguna l&#243;gica va a librarse de &#233;l achac&#225;ndolo todo a influencias extranjeras. Como dice otro informante: &#8220;siempre hay una peque&#241;a rosca, no ve; en cualquier lugar; son eternos oradores&#8221;. De modo que en este caso deber&#237;amos preocuparnos menos en los or&#237;genes y m&#225;s en lo que el propio Cala llama &#8220;mecanismos operativos&#8221;. As&#237; el estado puede ser menos enemigo, la federaci&#243;n menos bunker y el individuo menos lastre. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><blockquote><h4>Reference</h4><p><em>The unpublished master&#8217;s <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231211200922/http://repositorio.uasb.edu.bo:8080/bitstream/54000/275/1/TE-175.pdf">thesis</a> I used for this review. The book <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/title/900628371">edition</a>.</em></p><p><em>Last updated on 31 January 2024.</em></p></blockquote>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[MAS partisans & vandals - by Alison L. Spedding]]></title><description><![CDATA[#BookReview #Yungas #Coca]]></description><link>https://erblog.net/p/alison-speddings-mas-partisans-and</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://erblog.net/p/alison-speddings-mas-partisans-and</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[ER]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 15 Aug 2021 11:00:40 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HrQs!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F991fe793-f40b-415d-859c-8e6b8961d6af_2000x2000.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<blockquote><h4>This review can be read in:</h4><p><em>English</em></p><p><em>Fran&#231;ais</em></p><p><em>Espa&#241;ol</em></p></blockquote><div><hr></div><h1>English</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HrQs!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F991fe793-f40b-415d-859c-8e6b8961d6af_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HrQs!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F991fe793-f40b-415d-859c-8e6b8961d6af_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HrQs!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F991fe793-f40b-415d-859c-8e6b8961d6af_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HrQs!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F991fe793-f40b-415d-859c-8e6b8961d6af_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HrQs!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F991fe793-f40b-415d-859c-8e6b8961d6af_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HrQs!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F991fe793-f40b-415d-859c-8e6b8961d6af_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/991fe793-f40b-415d-859c-8e6b8961d6af_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:346324,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HrQs!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F991fe793-f40b-415d-859c-8e6b8961d6af_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HrQs!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F991fe793-f40b-415d-859c-8e6b8961d6af_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HrQs!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F991fe793-f40b-415d-859c-8e6b8961d6af_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HrQs!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F991fe793-f40b-415d-859c-8e6b8961d6af_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>There are studies that suggest Latin America&#8217;s strive for constitutional reforms isn&#8217;t always accompanied by an urge for constitutionalism itself. Bolivia in particular has had a total of nineteen constitutions to date, which seems like a big number for a country that is about 200 years old. It&#8217;s almost one constitution for every decade, so it could be a sign of permanent regulatory instability, even outright chicanery. For example, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231211151516/https://jorge-valenzuela.blog/author/jvalenzuela66/">Jorge Valenzuela</a>, an urban architect, points out that article 298, paragraph II of Bolivia&#8217;s 2009 constitution has a very worrisome detail: it gives exclusivity to the central government on land registry for rural areas, leaving its obligation to coordinate with municipal governments in ambiguous ground. In combination with some laws that regulate peasant markets, this could be a legislative measure for co-opting political support via bribery. The following is my review of Spedding&#8217;s latest book on the subject of the Yungas, which provides evidence to support this hypothesis.</p><h4>First a little overview</h4><p><em>MAS partisans &amp; vandals </em>is a sociological report on the deteriorating relations between Yungas coca growers and the MAS government. It is divided into two long chapters, the first one chronicles and explains an escalation of struggles occurred between 2017-19, the second goes back a bit (2002-19) to discuss the changes in the regulations of coca markets and their effects on modern peasant stratification. Every observation given in the book was made in situ or quoting others&#8217; fieldwork. Spedding defends this method because, she says, it shows the pros and cons of union politics with evidence rather than &#8220;theory&#8221;. This critique is aimed both at Bolivian sociology in general and at the claim that the MAS party exercised a &#8220;dictatorship&#8221; in 2014-19. To Spedding, this party seems actually &#8220;totalitarian&#8221; in nature, like that of Mao, Hitler or Stalin, and she finds reading it otherwise &#8220;wrong&#8221;.</p><p>Spedding was born in Belper, England, and studied anthropology at Cambridge and the London School of Economics and Political Science. She came to Bolivia in the late 1980s to complete her doctorate and has lived in the country ever since. This is in part because in 1998 she was directly affected by law 1008, a Bolivian drug control law that is still in effect although partially replaced, because she was found in possession of 2kg of marijuana &#8212; for her own consumption, not for peddling. As a result she was in prison until 2000 and is still legally rooted, so she cannot leave the country. She has taught at UMSA since her arrival in Bolivia until now, even while in prison. But in addition to being an academic, she has been a coca grower since 1991 and has even led her agrarian central on two occasions, 2012 and 2018. She speaks Spanish and Aymara fluently and has written books on anthropology as well as fiction. As of this post she has nine novels, a book of short stories and about ten academic books under her name. <em>MAS partisans &amp; vandals</em>, published in 2020, is her latest nonfiction book.</p><h4>The book in question</h4><p>Spedding&#8217;s thesis is that by virtue of its &#8220;politicking&#8221; attitude and &#8220;lack of decision&#8221;, Yungas agrarian unionism was the target of an assault by the MAS party on four flanks, 1) commercial war, 2) &#8220;co-opting via bribery&#8221;, 3) &#8220;arrests of leaders&#8221; and 4) &#8220;divisionist policies&#8221;. She says the tension between coca and the state dates back to the colony, but the recent phenomenon can be seen from the 20th century, it changes in 2006 and worsens in 2012. That would explain why the events of 2019 were, for some, sudden, but for others only the tip of the iceberg. The tip being here the 2017-19 period that begins when law <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231211161749/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-N906.xhtml">906</a>, the successor to law <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231211161924/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1008.xhtml">1008</a> with regards to coca regulation, was enacted. Spedding believes the successor law and its addenda, although it doesn&#8217;t make it explicit, promotes deapasantry in the Yungas by giving way to a new class of ex peasant, the &#8220;retail coca merchant&#8221;.</p><p>For background, the book opens with a summary where it says the Agrarian Reform (1953) caused a depression in the coca market that lasted until the late 1960s. Ten years later, the international cocaine business, under military dictators B&#225;nzer and later Garc&#237;a Meza, shot up its price until hyperinflation (1985) caused it to plummet again. In particular Garc&#237;a Meza (1980-81) initiated a statist program by introducing &#8220;coca distributor licenses&#8221;, a new trait that according to Spedding appears to have been copied from the Peruvian model, and in a way remains in place today. The measure sought to regulate the commodity by paying a low price in the Yungas market and demanding a higher one &#8220;in his [Garcia Meza&#8217;s] agencies&#8221;, which were dedicated to &#8220;non-traditional purposes&#8221; and whose clients could afford to pay an overprice. Spedding says that law 1008, from 1988, preserved this idea of &#8220;legal markets&#8221; under executive branch jurisdiction, which Yungas peasants, perhaps blinded by crony politics, accepted only skeptically until the 1990s but with zest since 2006.</p><p>Spedding says that in the following decade legal coca markets continued to be &#8220;that of ADEPCOCA in La Paz and that of Sacaba in Cochabamba&#8221;. The &#8220;retail coca merchant&#8221; figure made its appearance in 2006, with ministerial resolution 112, which in theory approves an old Yungas demand to dispense with intermediaries and sell coca directly to the customers. The requisites for this are a coca grower&#8217;s ID issued by one of the two legal markets, a communal order, and a route card stamped by DIGCOIN, a supervising entity. But Spedding says that this latter entity is placed in such a way as to regulate all traffic, so the Yungas demand &#8212; which economically speaking seems to me rather liberal &#8212; remained in the hands of the state and could be used at will as a political lever. Law 906 reinforced this by matching the tradable quota for reatil merchants and coca growers, which for Spedding was &#8220;the first sign that the government had noticed retail coca merchants as a potential bridgehead to pierce ADEPCOCA&#8221;.</p><p>The turmoil caused&nbsp;by all this was so much that the MAS party had to reinforce direct repression. When in 2012 parallel &#8220;Ad Hoc Committees&#8221; started to appear in La Asunta, this was so that telling extorted marches apart from those of legitimate disagreement were impossible to ignorant eyes. The trial of Franclin Guti&#233;rrez, which was discussed nationwide since 2018, is only the most visible example, Spedding says, in a series of assaults and traps. For example, she mentions Miguel Coico&#8217;s stabbing murder in 2019, perpetrated by Rafael Lluta, a retail coca merchant from Riberalta. Also Lieutenant Sandoval&#8217;s death in 2018, denounced by the MAS party as an &#8220;ambush&#8221;, but which it was later revealed could be due to something closer to home, because the shot had been &#8220;at point blank rage&#8221;. The overall tactic, Spedding says, went deeper than any previous &#8220;neoliberal&#8221; government because it overtly targeted class clivages in order to divide and weaken the opposition.</p><h4>My commentary</h4><p>Spedding&#8217;s analysis reveals a critical weakness of agrarian unionism in Bolivia. She suspects that in reality both contenders, MAS and ADEPCOCA, suffer from &#8220;verticalism&#8221; in their management of power, so that Yungas leaders were easy to corrupt or intimidate, and in turn MAS leaders, before capitulating in 2019, truly believed they still had majority support. This would not render union politics useless, but it does point to its tendency towards 1) centralizing power in a &#8220;party leadership&#8221; sphere, 2) making decisions without consulting &#8220;lower-level militants&#8221; and 3) imposing a &#8220;symbolic violence&#8221; that &#8220;prevents other ways of argument&#8221;. The Yungas and all of Bolivia are in grave danger because at the heart of this tendency there is an antisolutionist attitude. Mistaking it for something else starts by being &#8220;wrong&#8221;, as Spedding says, but in the long run it becomes indifferent and even complicit.</p><p>It seems to me that one of the book&#8217;s contributions is to explain the commercial side of this problem. Spedding suggests that at its smartest, MAS tactics are always a copycat of their marxist predecessors. But this shouldn&#8217;t really be news, whereas the coca market is little understood beyond itself, partly because every Bolivian truly knows only a fraction of their country. If this ignorance were seriously criticized, that would make dividing us less easy. Nowadays the MAS party is succeeding because it fights better than the rest, and that should change. The implication here is that ADEPCOCA must acknowledge the ineffectiveness of its previous measures. If it is to defeat the assault that was inflicted on it, it mustn&#8217;t shed any more blood. It can respond within the rules of the trade war its own government declared against it. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h1>Fran&#231;ais</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ASAo!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F305a9702-4314-4750-9fde-c73d2ec3cd44_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ASAo!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F305a9702-4314-4750-9fde-c73d2ec3cd44_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ASAo!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F305a9702-4314-4750-9fde-c73d2ec3cd44_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ASAo!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F305a9702-4314-4750-9fde-c73d2ec3cd44_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ASAo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F305a9702-4314-4750-9fde-c73d2ec3cd44_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ASAo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F305a9702-4314-4750-9fde-c73d2ec3cd44_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/305a9702-4314-4750-9fde-c73d2ec3cd44_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:389612,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ASAo!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F305a9702-4314-4750-9fde-c73d2ec3cd44_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ASAo!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F305a9702-4314-4750-9fde-c73d2ec3cd44_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ASAo!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F305a9702-4314-4750-9fde-c73d2ec3cd44_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ASAo!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F305a9702-4314-4750-9fde-c73d2ec3cd44_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Il&#8217;y a des &#233;tudes qui sugg&#232;rent que le z&#232;le de l&#8217;Am&#233;rique Latine pour des r&#233;formes constitutionnelles ne s&#8217;accompagne pas toujours d&#8217;un z&#232;le pour le constitutionnalisme en soi. Bolivie en particulier a eu au total dix-neuf constitutions &#224; ce jour, qui est un grand nombre pour un pays qui a environ 200 ans d&#8217;&#226;ge. C&#8217;est presque une constitution pour chaque d&#233;cennie, alors cela pourrait &#234;tre un signe d&#8217;instabilit&#233; r&#233;glementaire permanente, m&#234;me de la chicanerie ouverte. Par example, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231211151516/https://jorge-valenzuela.blog/author/jvalenzuela66/">Jorge Valenzuela</a>, un architecte urbainiste, souligne que l&#8217;article 298, paragraphe II de la constitution Bolivienne de 2009 a un d&#233;tail tr&#232;s inqui&#233;tant: il donne l&#8217;exclusivit&#233; au gouvernement central dans l&#8217;enregistrement des terres dans les zones rurales, laissant son obligation de coordiner avec les gouvernements municipaux sur terrain ambigu. En combinaison avec quelques lois qui r&#233;gulent les march&#233;s paysans, cela pourrait &#234;tre une mesure l&#233;gislative pour coopter de soutien politique par pot-de-vin. Ce qui suit est ma revue du dernier livre de Spedding sur le sujet des Yungas, qui fournit des preuves pour soutenir cette hypoth&#232;se.</p><h4>D&#8217;abord un bref r&#233;sum&#233;</h4><p><em>Partisans du MAS &amp; vandales</em> est un rapport sociologique sur la d&#233;t&#233;rioration des relations entre des cultivateurs de coca des Yungas et le gouvernement du MAS. Il est divis&#233; en deux longs chapitres, le premier chronique et explique une escalade des luttes qui ont eu lieu entre 2017-19, le deuxi&#232;me revient quelque peu en arri&#232;re (2002-19) pour discuter les changements dans les r&#233;gulations du march&#233; de la coca et ses effets sur la stratification de la paysannerie moderne. Toute observation donn&#233;e dans le livre a &#233;t&#233; faite in situ ou en citant d&#8217;&#224;utres travaux de terrain. Spedding d&#233;fend cette m&#233;thode parce que, dit-elle, elle montre les positifs et n&#233;gatifs de la politique syndicaliste &#224; l&#8217;aide de preuves plut&#244;t que de &#8220;th&#233;orie&#8221;. Cette critique est dirig&#233;e &#224; la fois contre la sociologie Bolivienne en g&#233;n&#233;ral et contre l&#8217;affirmation selon laquelle le MAS a exerc&#233; une &#8220;dictature&#8221; en 2014-19. Pour Spedding, ce parti semble en fait de nature &#8220;totalitaire&#8221;, comme celui de Mao, Hitler ou Staline, et elle trouve qu&#8217;en le lisant autrement serait &#8220;erron&#233;&#8221;.</p><p>Spedding est n&#233; en Belper, Angleterre, et a &#233;tudi&#233; anthropologie &#224; Cambridge et &#224; la London School of Economics and Political Science. Elle est venue en Bolivie &#224; la fin des ann&#233;es 1980s pour terminer son doctorat et a v&#233;cu dans le pays depuis lors. Cela est en partie parce qu&#8217;en 1998 elle a &#233;t&#233; directement touch&#233;e par la loi 1008, une loi Bolivienne de contr&#244;le des drogues qui est toujours en vigueur bien que partiellement r&#233;mplac&#233;e, car elle a &#233;t&#233; trouv&#233; en possession de 2kg de marijuana &#8212; &#224; sa propre consommation, pas pour le colportage. En cons&#233;quence elle a &#233;t&#233; emprisonn&#233;e jusqu&#8217;en 2000 et est toujours enracin&#233;e l&#233;galement, alors elle peut pas quitter le pays. Elle enseigne &#224; l&#8217;UMSA depuis son arriv&#233;e en Bolivie jusqu&#8217;&#224; aujourd&#8217;hui, m&#234;me en prison. Mais en plus d&#8217;&#234;tre acad&#233;mique, elle est cultivateur de coca depuis 1991 et a m&#234;me dirig&#233; sa centrale agraire &#224; deux reprises, 2012 et 2018. Elle parle couramment Espagnol et Aymara et a &#233;crit des livres sur anthropologie ainsi que fiction. &#192; la date de cet post elle a neuf romans, un livre d&#8217;histoires courtes et environ dix livres acad&#233;miques sous son nom. <em>Partisans du MAS &amp; vandales</em>, publi&#233; en 2020, est son dernier livre de nonfiction.</p><h4>Le livre en question</h4><p>La th&#232;se de Spedding est qu&#8217;en raison de son attitude de &#8220;politicaillerie&#8221; et son &#8220;manque de d&#233;cision&#8221;, le syndicalisme agraire des Yungas a &#233;t&#233; cibl&#233; par le MAS sur quatre fronts, 1) guerre commerciale, 2) &#8220;cooptation par pot-de-vin&#8221;, 3) &#8220;arrestations de dirigeants&#8221; et 4) &#8220;politiques divisionnistes&#8221;. Elle dit que les tensions entre la coca et l&#8217;&#233;tat remontent &#224; l&#8217;&#233;poque coloniale, mais le ph&#233;nom&#232;ne r&#233;cent est visible depuis le 20e si&#232;cle, change en 2006 et s&#8217;aggrave en 2012. Cela expliquerait pourquoi les &#233;v&#233;nements de 2019 ont &#233;t&#233;, pour certains, soudains, mais pour d&#8217;autres seulement la pointe de l&#8217;iceberg. La pointe &#233;tant ici la p&#233;riode 2017-19 qui commence quand la loi <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231211161749/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-N906.xhtml">906</a>, la successeure de la loi <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231211161924/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1008.xhtml">1008</a> au sujet de r&#233;gulation de coca, a &#233;t&#233; promulgu&#233;e. Spedding croie que la loi succeseure et ses addenda, bien que cela ne soit pas explicite, promeut la d&#233;paysannisation dans les Yungas en faisant place &#224; une nouvelle classe d&#8217;ex paysan, le &#8220;marchand de coca au d&#233;tail&#8221;.</p><p>Pour contexte, le livre ouvre avec un r&#233;sum&#233; &#242;u il est dit que la R&#233;forme Agraire (1953) a caus&#233; une d&#233;pression dans le march&#233; de la coca qui a dur&#233; jusqu&#8217;&#224; la fin des ann&#233;es 1960s. Dix ans plus tard, le commerce international de la coca&#239;ne, avec les dictateurs militaires B&#225;nzer et puis Garc&#237;a Meza, a fait exploser son prix jusqu&#8217;&#224; ce que l&#8217;hyperinflation (1985) l&#8217;a fait chuter &#224; nouveau. En particulier Garc&#237;a Meza (1980-81) a initi&#233; un programme &#233;tatiste en introduisant des &#8220;licences de distribution de coca&#8221;, un nouveau trait qui selon Spedding semple avoir &#233;t&#233; copi&#233;e du mod&#232;le P&#233;ruvien, et qui d&#8217;une certaine mani&#232;re est toujouts en vigueur. La mesure cherchait &#224; r&#233;guler la marchandise en payant un prix bas au march&#233; de Yungas et en demandant un prix plus &#233;lev&#233; &#8220;dans ses agences [celles de Garc&#237;a Meza]&#8221;, qui &#233;taient d&#233;di&#233;es &#224; des &#8220;buts non traditionnels&#8221; et dont les clients pouvaient payer le surprix. Spedding dit que la loi 1008, de 1988, a preserv&#233; cette id&#233;e des &#8220;march&#233;s l&#233;gaux&#8221; sous la juridiction du pouvoir ex&#233;cutif, que cultivateurs des Yungas, peut-&#234;tre aveugl&#233;es par une politique de copinage, ont accept&#233; seulement avec scepticisme jusqu&#8217;aux ann&#233;es 1990s mais avec z&#232;le depuis 2006.</p><p>Spedding dit qu&#8217;au cours de la d&#233;cennie suivante les march&#233;s l&#233;gaux de la coca ont continu&#233; &#224; &#234;tre &#8220;celui d&#8217;ADEPCOCA &#224; La Paz et celui de Sacaba &#224; Cochabamba&#8221;. La figure du &#8220;marchand de coca au d&#233;tail&#8221; est apparue en 2006, avec la r&#233;solution ministeri&#233;lle 112, qui approuve en th&#233;orie une vieille demande des Yungas de se passer d&#8217;inerm&#233;diaires et vendre la coca directement aux clients. Le conditions requises pour cela sont une carte de producteur d&#233;livr&#233;e par l&#8217;un des deux march&#233;s l&#233;gaux, une commande communale, et une carte routi&#232;re tamponn&#233;e par la DIGCOIN, une entit&#233; de supervision. Mais Spedding dit que cette derni&#232;re entit&#233; est situ&#233;e de telle sorte qu&#8217;elle r&#233;gule tout le trafic, donc la demande des Yungas &#8212; qui sur le plan &#233;conomique me semple assez lib&#233;rale &#8212; est rest&#233; entre les mains de l&#8217;&#233;tat et a pu &#234;tre utilis&#233;e &#224; volont&#233; comme levier politique. La loi 906 a renforc&#233; cela en &#233;galisant le quota commercialisable des marchands au d&#233;tail et des producteurs, ce qui pour Spedding &#233;tait &#8220;le premier signe que le gouvernement avait identifi&#233; les marchands de coca au d&#233;tail comme une t&#234;te de pont potentielle pour percer ADEPCOCA&#8221;.</p><p>Le bouleversement caus&#233; par tout cela &#233;tait tellement que le MAS a eu besoin de renforcer la r&#233;pression directe. Lorsqu&#8217;en 2012 des &#8220;Comit&#233;s Ad Hoc&#8221; parall&#232;les sont apparus &#224; La Asunta, c&#8217;&#233;tait pour que distinguer entre les marches extorqu&#233;es et celles de d&#233;saccord l&#233;gitime soit impossible &#224; l&#8217;&#339;il ignorant. Le proc&#232;s de Franclin Guti&#233;rrez, qui a &#233;t&#233; discut&#233; &#224; travers tout le pays depuis 2018, n&#8217;est que l&#8217;exemple le plus visible, dit Spedding, d&#8217;une s&#233;rie d&#8217;agressions et de pi&#232;ges. Par example, elle mentionne le meurtre &#224; l&#8217;arme blanche de Miguel Coico en 2019, perpetr&#233; par Rafael Lluta, marchand de coca au d&#233;tail de Riberalta. De m&#234;me la mort du Lieutenant Sandoval en 2018, que le MAS a d&#233;nonc&#233;e comme une &#8220;embuscade&#8221;, mais dont il est apparu par la suite qu&#8217;elle pouvait &#234;tre due &#224; quelque chose de plus proche, car le tir avait &#233;t&#233; &#8220;&#224; bout portant&#8221;. La tactique g&#233;n&#233;rale, dit Spedding, est arriv&#233; plus profonde que n&#8217;importe quel autre gouvernement &#8220;n&#233;olib&#233;rale&#8221; pr&#233;c&#233;dent car elle a ouvertement cibl&#233; des clivages de classe pour diviser et affaiblir l&#8217;opposition.</p><h4>Mon commentaire</h4><p>L&#8217;analyse de Spedding r&#233;v&#232;le une faiblesse critique du syndicalisme agraire en Bolivie. Elle soup&#231;onne qu&#8217;en r&#233;alit&#233; tous deux adversaires, MAS et ADEPCOCA, souffrent de &#8220;verticalisme&#8221; dans leur gestion du pouvoir, de sorte que dirigeants des Yungas &#233;taient faciles &#224; corrompre ou intimider, et &#224; leur tour dirigeants du MAS, avant de capituler en 2019, croiyaient vraiment qu&#8217;ils avaient encore le soutien de la majorit&#233;. Cela ne rendrait pas la politique syndicaliste inutile, mais pointe vers sa tendance &#224; 1) centraliser le pouvoir dans une sphere &#8220;d&#8217;&#233;lite du parti&#8221;, 2) prendre des d&#233;cisions sans consulter l&#8217;avis des &#8220;militants de base&#8221; et 3) imposer une &#8220;violence symbolique&#8221; qui &#8220;emp&#234;che toute autre forme d&#8217;argumentation&#8221;. Les Yungas et toute la Bolivie courent un grave danger car au c&#339;ur de cette tendance il y a une attitude antisolucionniste. La prendre pour autre chose est d&#8217;abord &#8220;erron&#233;&#8221;, comme dit Spedding, mais &#224; long terme finit par devenir indiff&#233;rent et m&#234;me complice.</p><p>Il me semble que l&#8217;une des contributions du livre est d&#8217;expliquer l&#8217;aspect commercial de ce probl&#232;me. Spedding sugg&#232;re qu&#8217;&#224; son plus rus&#233;, la tactique du MAS est toujours une copie de ses pr&#233;d&#233;cesseurs marxistes. Mais cela ne devrait pas &#234;tre vraiment une nouveaut&#233;, alors que le march&#233; de la coca est peu compris au-del&#224; de lui-m&#234;me, en partie parce qu&#8217;il est vrai que chaque Bolivien et Bolivienne ne conna&#238;t qu&#8217;une fraction de son pays. Si cette ignorance f&#251;t s&#233;rieusement critiqu&#233;e, &#231;a rendrait nous diviser moins facile. Aujourd&#8217;hui le MAS r&#233;ussit parce qu&#8217;il se bat mieux que les autres, et cela devrait changer. L&#8217;implication ici est qu&#8217;ADEPCOCA doit reconna&#238;tre l&#8217;inefficacit&#233; de ses mesures pr&#233;c&#233;dents. Si elle veut vaincre l&#8217;assaut qui lui a &#233;t&#233; inflig&#233;, elle ne doit pas verser plus de sang. Elle peut r&#233;pondre dans le cadre des r&#232;gles de la guerre commerciale qui lui a &#233;t&#233; d&#233;clar&#233;e par son propre gouvernement. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h1>Espa&#241;ol</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1SDR!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa7afbdcc-75c1-4b9f-bee2-b1aecf4e96b1_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1SDR!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa7afbdcc-75c1-4b9f-bee2-b1aecf4e96b1_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1SDR!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa7afbdcc-75c1-4b9f-bee2-b1aecf4e96b1_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1SDR!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa7afbdcc-75c1-4b9f-bee2-b1aecf4e96b1_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1SDR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa7afbdcc-75c1-4b9f-bee2-b1aecf4e96b1_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1SDR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa7afbdcc-75c1-4b9f-bee2-b1aecf4e96b1_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/a7afbdcc-75c1-4b9f-bee2-b1aecf4e96b1_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:359491,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1SDR!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa7afbdcc-75c1-4b9f-bee2-b1aecf4e96b1_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1SDR!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa7afbdcc-75c1-4b9f-bee2-b1aecf4e96b1_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1SDR!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa7afbdcc-75c1-4b9f-bee2-b1aecf4e96b1_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1SDR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa7afbdcc-75c1-4b9f-bee2-b1aecf4e96b1_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Hay estudios que sugieren que el af&#225;n de Am&#233;rica Latina por las reformas constitucionales no siempre va acompa&#241;ado de un af&#225;n por el constitucionalismo en s&#237; mismo. Bolivia en particular ha tenido un total de diecinueve constituciones a la fecha, lo que parece un n&#250;mero grande para un pa&#237;s que tiene 200 a&#241;os de edad. Es casi una constituci&#243;n por cada d&#233;cada, as&#237; que podr&#237;a ser un signo de inestabilidad regulatoria permanente, incluso abierta chicaner&#237;a. Por ejemplo, <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231211151516/https://jorge-valenzuela.blog/author/jvalenzuela66/">Jorge Valenzuela</a>, un arquitecto urbanista, se&#241;ala que el art&#237;culo 298, p&#225;rrafo II de la constituci&#243;n Boliviana de 2009 tiene un detalle muy preocupante: da exclusividad al gobierno central en el registro de tierra para zonas rurales, dejando su obligaci&#243;n de coordinar con gobiernos municipales en terreno ambiguo. En combinaci&#243;n con algunas leyes que regulan mercados campesinos, esto podr&#237;a ser una medida legislativa para cooptar apoyo pol&#237;tico por medio del soborno. Lo que sigue es mi rese&#241;a del &#250;ltimo libro de Spedding sobre el tema de los Yungas, que aporta pruebas para respaldar esta hip&#243;tesis.</p><h4>Primero un breve resumen</h4><p><em>Masucos &amp; vand&#225;licos</em> es un reporte sociol&#243;gico sobre el deterioro de las relaciones entre cocaleros de los Yungas y el gobierno del MAS. Est&#225; dividido en dos cap&#237;tulos largos, el primero relata y explica una escalada de luchas ocurridas entre 2017-19, el segundo vuelve algo atr&#225;s (2002-19) para discutir los cambios en la regulaci&#243;n de mercados de la coca y sus efectos en la estratificaci&#243;n del campesinado moderno. Toda observaci&#243;n que se da en el libro fue hecha in situ o citando otros trabajos de campo. Spedding defiende ese m&#233;todo porque, dice, muestra los pros y contras de la pol&#237;tica sindicalista con pruebas en vez de &#8220;teor&#237;a&#8221;. Esta cr&#237;tica est&#225; dirigida tanto a la sociolog&#237;a Boliviana en general como a la denuncia de que el MAS ha ejercido una &#8220;dictadura&#8221; entre 2014-19. Para Spedding, este partido pol&#237;tico parece ser m&#225;s bien de car&#225;cter &#8220;totalitario&#8221;, como el de Mao, Hitler o Stalin, y encuentra que leerlo de otra forma ser&#237;a &#8220;equivocado&#8221;.</p><p>Spedding naci&#243; en Belper, Inglaterra, y estudi&#243; antropolog&#237;a en Cambridge y en la London School of Economics and Political Science. Vino a Bolivia a fines de los 1980s para completar su doctorado y ha vivido desde entonces en el pa&#237;s. Esto es en parte porque en 1998 ella fue afectada directamente por la ley 1008, una ley Boliviana de control de drogas que est&#225; todav&#237;a en vigor si bien parcialmente reemplazada, porque se la hall&#243; en posesi&#243;n de 2kg de marihuana &#8212; para su propio consumo, no para venta ambulante. A causa de eso estuvo en prisi&#243;n hasta el a&#241;o 2000 y a&#250;n est&#225; legalmente arraigada, as&#237; que no puede dejar el pa&#237;s. Ha ense&#241;ado en la UMSA desde su llegada a Bolivia hasta ahora, aun en prisi&#243;n. Pero adem&#225;s de ser una acad&#233;mica, ha sido cocalera desde 1991 e incluso ha dirigido su central agraria en dos ocasiones, 2012 y 2018. Habla espa&#241;ol y aymara con fluidez y ha escrito libros de antropolog&#237;a y tambi&#233;n ficci&#243;n. A la fecha de este post tiene nueve novelas, un libro de cuentos y como diez libros de antropolog&#237;a bajo su nombre. <em>Masucos &amp; vand&#225;licos</em>, publicado en 2020, es su libro m&#225;s reciente de noficci&#243;n.</p><h4>El libro en cuesti&#243;n</h4><p>La tesis de Spedding es que en virtud de su actitud &#8220;politiquera&#8221; y su &#8220;falta de decisi&#243;n&#8221;, el sindicalismo agrario en los Yungas fue blanco de un asalto por parte del MAS en cuatro flancos, 1) guerra comercial, 2) &#8220;cooptaci&#243;n clientelar&#8221;, 3) &#8220;detenciones de dirigentes&#8221; y 4) &#8220;pol&#237;ticas de divisionismo&#8221;. Dice que la tensi&#243;n entre coca y estado se remonta a la colonia, pero el fen&#243;meno reciente puede verse desde el siglo 20, cambia en 2006 y empeora en 2012. Eso explicar&#237;a por qu&#233; los hechos de 2019 fueron, para algunos, s&#250;bitos, pero para otros solo la punta del iceberg. La punta siendo aqu&#237; el periodo 2017-19 que inicia cuando la ley <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231211161749/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-N906.xhtml">906</a>, la sucesora de la ley <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231211161924/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-1008.xhtml">1008</a> en materia regulaci&#243;n de la coca, fue promulgada. Spedding cree que la ley sucesora y sus adendas, si bien no lo hace expl&#237;cito, promueve la descampesinizaci&#243;n en los Yungas dando paso a una nueva clase de ex campesino, el &#8220;carpetero [comerciante minorista de coca]&#8221;.</p><p>Para contexto, el libro abre con un resumen donde se dice que la Reforma Agraria (1953) ocasion&#243; una depresi&#243;n en el mercado de la coca que dur&#243; hasta fines de los 1960s. Diez a&#241;os m&#225;s tarde, el negocio internacional de la coca&#237;na, con los dictadores militares B&#225;nzer y luego Garc&#237;a Meza, dispar&#243; su precio hasta que la hiperinflaci&#243;n (1985) lo desplom&#243; nuevamente. En particular Garc&#237;a Meza (1980-81) inici&#243; un programa estatista al introducir las &#8220;licencias para distribuir coca&#8221;, un nuevo rasgo que seg&#250;n Spedding parece haber sido copiado del modelo Peruano, y que en cierta forma sigue vigente. La medida buscaba regular la mercanc&#237;a pagando un precio bajo al mercado Yungue&#241;o y pidiendo otro m&#225;s elevado &#8220;en sus agencias [las de Garc&#237;a Meza]&#8221;, que estaban dedicadas a &#8220;fines no tradicionales&#8221; y cuyos clientes pod&#237;an pagar el sobreprecio. Spedding dice que la ley 1008, de 1988, ha preservado esta idea de &#8220;mercados legales&#8221; bajo jurisdicci&#243;n del poder ejecutivo, que productores Yungue&#241;os, acaso cegados por una pol&#237;tica de amiguetes, aceptaron solo con escepticismo hasta los 1990s pero con arrojo desde 2006.</p><p>Spedding dice que en el curso de la d&#233;cada siguiente los mercados legales de coca siguieron siendo &#8220;el de ADEPCOCA en La Paz y el de Sacaba en Cochabamba&#8221;. La figura del &#8220;productor con carpeta al detalle [comerciante minorista de coca]&#8221; hizo su aparici&#243;n en 2006, con la resoluci&#243;n ministerial 112, que en teor&#237;a aprueba una vieja demanda Yungue&#241;a de prescindir de intermediarios y vender coca directo al consumidor. Los requisitos para esto son un carnet de productor emitido por uno de los dos mercados legales, una orden comunal y una hoja de ruta sellada por DIGCOIN, una entidad supervisora. Pero Spedding dice que esta &#250;ltima entidad est&#225; situada de tal manera que regula todo el tr&#225;fico, as&#237; que la demanda Yungue&#241;a &#8212; que econ&#243;micamente hablando me parece m&#225;s bien liberal &#8212; sigui&#243; en manos del estado y pudo usarse a discreci&#243;n como palanca pol&#237;tica. La ley 906 reforz&#243; esto igualando la cuota comerciable para comerciantes minoristas y para productores, lo que para Spedding fue &#8220;el primer indicio de que el gobierno hab&#237;a identificado a los carpeteros como cabeza de puente para perforar a ADEPCOCA&#8221;.</p><p>La agitaci&#243;n que todo esto ocasion&#243; fue tal que el MAS tuvo que reforzar la represi&#243;n directa. Cuando en 2012 empezaron a aparecer &#8220;Comit&#233;s Ad Hoc&#8221; paralelos en La Asunta, esto fue para que distinguir entre la marcha extorsionada y la del desacuerdo leg&#237;timo fuese imposible a ojos ignorantes. El juicio a Franclin Guti&#233;rrez, que fue discutido a trav&#233;s de todo el pa&#237;s desde 2018, es solo el ejemplo m&#225;s visible, dice Spedding, en una serie de asaltos y trampas. Por ejemplo, ella menciona el asesinato a pu&#241;aladas de Miguel Coico en 2019, perpetrado por Rafael Lluta, carpetero de Riberalta. Tambi&#233;n la muerte del Teniente Sandoval en 2018, que el MAS denunci&#243; como una &#8220;emboscada&#8221;, pero que luego se supo que podr&#237;a deberse a algo m&#225;s cercano, porque el disparo hab&#237;a sido &#8220;a quemarropa&#8221;. La t&#225;ctica general, dice Spedding, lleg&#243; m&#225;s hondo que cualquier otro gobierno &#8220;neoliberal&#8221; precedente porque apunt&#243; a quiebres de clase para dividir y debilitar a la oposici&#243;n.</p><h4>Mi comentario</h4><p>El an&#225;lisis de Spedding revela una debilidad cr&#237;tica del sindicalismo agrario en Bolivia. Ella sospecha que en realidad ambos contendientes, MAS y ADEPCOCA, adolecen de &#8220;verticalismo&#8221; en su manejo del poder, por lo que l&#237;deres Yungue&#241;os fueron f&#225;ciles de corromper o amedrentar, y a su vez l&#237;deres del MAS, antes de capitular en 2019, creyeron de veras seguir contando con apoyo mayoritario. Esto no har&#237;a in&#250;til a la pol&#237;tica sindicalista, pero s&#237; apunta a su tendencia a 1) centralizar el poder en una esfera &#8220;cupular&#8221;, 2) decidir sin preguntar a las &#8220;bases&#8221; y 3) imponer una &#8220;violencia simb&#243;lica&#8221; que &#8220;impide otras formas de argumento&#8221;. Los Yungas y toda Bolivia corren grave peligro porque al fondo de esa tendencia hay una actitud antisolucionista. Confundirla por otra cosa empieza por ser &#8220;equivocado&#8221;, como dice Spedding, pero a la larga acaba volvi&#233;ndose indiferente y hasta c&#243;mplice.</p><p>Me parece que uno de los aportes del libro es explicar el lado comercial de este problema. Spedding sugiere que cuando es m&#225;s astuta, la t&#225;ctica del MAS es siempre una copia de sus predecesores marxistas. Pero esto realmente no deber&#237;a ser una novedad, mientras que el mercado de la coca es poco entendido m&#225;s all&#225; de s&#237; mismo, en parte porque es cierto que cada Boliviano y Boliviana conoce solo una fracci&#243;n de su pa&#237;s. Si esa ignorancia fuese criticada en serio, ser&#237;a menos f&#225;cil dividirnos. Hoy en d&#237;a el MAS tiene &#233;xito porque lucha mejor que el resto, y eso deber&#237;a cambiar. La implicaci&#243;n aqu&#237; es que ADEPCOCA debe reconocer la ineficacia de sus medidas anteriores. Si quiere vencer el asalto que se le infringi&#243;, no debe derramar m&#225;s sangre. Puede responder seg&#250;n las reglas de la guerra comercial que le ha declarado su propio gobierno. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><blockquote><h4>Reference</h4><p><em>The <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/masucos-vandalicos/oclc/1250314095&amp;referer=brief_results">edition</a> I used for this review.</em></p><p><em>Last updated on 31 January 2024.</em></p></blockquote>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[The national-popular in Bolivia - by René Zavaleta]]></title><description><![CDATA[#BookReview]]></description><link>https://erblog.net/p/rene-zavaletas-the-national-popular</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://erblog.net/p/rene-zavaletas-the-national-popular</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[ER]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 01 Aug 2021 11:00:53 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xybx!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4690e7df-43b4-4b86-a66a-901b4f59ba08_2000x2000.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<blockquote><h4>This review can be read in:</h4><p><em>English</em></p><p><em>Fran&#231;ais</em></p><p><em>Espa&#241;ol</em></p></blockquote><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xybx!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4690e7df-43b4-4b86-a66a-901b4f59ba08_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xybx!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4690e7df-43b4-4b86-a66a-901b4f59ba08_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xybx!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4690e7df-43b4-4b86-a66a-901b4f59ba08_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xybx!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4690e7df-43b4-4b86-a66a-901b4f59ba08_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xybx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4690e7df-43b4-4b86-a66a-901b4f59ba08_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xybx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4690e7df-43b4-4b86-a66a-901b4f59ba08_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/4690e7df-43b4-4b86-a66a-901b4f59ba08_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:203436,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xybx!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4690e7df-43b4-4b86-a66a-901b4f59ba08_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xybx!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4690e7df-43b4-4b86-a66a-901b4f59ba08_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xybx!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4690e7df-43b4-4b86-a66a-901b4f59ba08_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xybx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4690e7df-43b4-4b86-a66a-901b4f59ba08_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>The word &#8220;chacologists&#8221; refers to those who mismanaged Bolivia&#8217;s army during the war against Paraguay in 1932-35. For Zavaleta, back then they were the people in power <em>and</em> the intellectual authors of the bloodshed, all in one. The soldiers, on the other hand, consisted mostly of peasants who were reluctant to recruitment because their government was but a racist, incompetent stooge. According to James Dunkerley, a historian, during the Chaco War a total of 52,400 Bolivian troops died in battle and another 4,264 died in captivity. But the chacologists saw this as this a reasonable loss. Most of them weren&#8217;t even voters, so who cared.</p><p>In today&#8217;s Bolivia, this past is now little more than a lever in the craft of belligerent democracy. The difference is there are no foreign enemies; we&#8217;re fighting ourselves. So it isn&#8217;t silly to ask: who are the casualties this time? Who&#8217;s telling us to go to war? And who are the self-absorbed chacologists? The following is my review of one of the handbooks of Bolivia&#8217;s left-wing elite in the field of political science. I hope discussing it helps ellucidate at least one of these questions.</p><h4>First a little overview</h4><p><em>The national-popular in Bolivia</em> is a historical essay on &#8220;the problem of the State&#8221; in Bolivia. The period of main interest (1952-80) was regrettably not addressed because of the author&#8217;s untimely death. The first chapter compares the attitudes of Chile, Peru and Bolivia vis-&#224;-vis the &#8220;surplus&#8221; at stake during the War of the Pacific, the second chapter argues and applauds that a passage towards a &#8220;Willka idea of power&#8221; occurred since the Federal War, and the third chapter goes back to the 19th century and reviews the evolution of the &#8220;Oligarchic State&#8221; up to the Chaco War. In this analytical road, the book begins with a war and ends with another. It is meant to be a critique of the &#8220;Oligarchic State&#8221;, but also a codex on what is the correct state for Bolivia in the late 20th century, and who should be its agents. It is therefore an essay with a peculiar confidence in some authoritarian features of government.</p><p>Zavaleta was born in Oruro, Bolivia, and fled as a teenager to La Paz, attracted by the Revoluci&#243;n del 52, an uprising that was arguably inevitable already by 1951, at which point it became mainly about reclaiming a snatched electoral victory. Zavaleta must have been 14 at the time. In La Paz, he seems to have done desk work from the get-go because by 1960 his career was modestly mature. At 21 he was deputy director in the Pace&#241;o newspaper <em>La Naci&#243;n</em>, at 24 he was a member of parliament and at 27 he was the minister of mines and petroleum. Since 1964 he studied law at UMSA, in La Paz, and in 1968 he was imprisoned by the military dictator Barrientos. A year later, quite surprisingly, he went to Oxford as a guest professor and between the 1970s and 1980s he was a professor at UNAM, in M&#233;xico City, and director of FLACSO. In Bolivian leagues, especially considering his time, this CV makes Zavaleta academically a heavyweight. Yet although his &#339;uvre is somewhat sizable, he couldn&#8217;t be called prolific because he was interrupted at 47, due to health problems, by too early a death. <em>The national-popular in Bolivia</em> is the last of only three books that he wrote and here I used the first edition, from 1986.</p><h4>The book in question</h4><p>Zavaleta&#8217;s thesis is that the &#8220;State of 1952&#8221; (1956-64) put an end to the &#8220;Oligarchic State&#8221; (1884-1934) because it was the first &#8220;popular&#8221; state program in the country. He takes his arguments from concrete cases of &#8220;crisis&#8221;, the Pacific and Chaco wars and above all the insurrections of 1899 (the Federal War) and 1952 (the aforementioned Revoluci&#243;n del 52) &#8212; for him &#8220;originary points&#8221; of Bolivian &#8220;historic memory&#8221;. He says that there is an &#8220;official&#8221; country and an &#8220;interior&#8221; country, and that in developing countries these two do not coincide, so one must resort to &#8220;crisis&#8221; in order to bring the interior country back up in sight. During crisis, he says, there is no bloodshed but rather a sentiment for something old and deep that is theoretically truer than the official country. In Bolivia the official country would be the &#8220;lordly&#8221; one and the interior country would be the &#8220;popular&#8221; one, although the whole book speaks of &#8220;national-popular&#8221; just as much as national-lordly. The two identities are really &#8220;a confrontation between half-breeds&#8221;. That is to say, not a fully racial issue but one that is based on a racial statute nonetheless.</p><p>Zavaleta says the lordly identity came to be during the War of the Pacific (1879-84). When he compares the three contending countries, Chile, Per&#250; and Bolivia, this is to show that in Bolivia the &#8220;gamonal&#8221; minority had no contact with the &#8220;peasant&#8221; majority, much less the authority to send them to war. Besides, it seems the lordly ones didn&#8217;t fully understand the value of sodium nitrate or the access to world markets that they were losing, due to arrogance and incompetence. Zavaleta says that a &#8220;pre-bourgeois&#8221; bourgeoisie finally emerged from silver and tin mining, but that it couldn&#8217;t or didn&#8217;t care about pushing the country out of pre-capitalism. Instead, sumptuary spending took precedence over investment, for example with a well-known <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125162820/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-18680928-1.xhtml">law</a> of 1868 that expropriated &#8220;community&#8221; lands for estates that never became profitable. For all these reasons, Zavaleta sees the lordly identity as unforgivable, its &#8220;capitulation&#8221; during the Chaco War (1932-35) as equally absurd, only bloodier.</p><p>By contrast, what he values about popular identity is the &#8220;caudillo idea&#8221; that is characteristic of it and which in 1899 was assumed by Z&#225;rate Willka, although with a slight &#8220;separatist&#8221; tone. He says that in the midst of regionalist debates between Sucre and La Paz, Z&#225;rate&#8217;s program was popular and practical: he had general support, and if he himself were to be absent, his leadership would have been taken over by someone else without a problem. His role as &#8220;Willka&#8221; was contingent. For Zavaleta that&#8217;s important because, he argues, it marks the appearance of the &#8220;free man&#8221; that is needed for capitalism to come about. Or if at all possible, for socialism to come about, because Zavaleta prefers the stately way instead of the free market. Which brings us back to the codex style, subtle but strong, of the way in which he puts his &#8220;national&#8221; program forward.</p><p>In the space of roughly 250 pages, and in a document that is after all still a draft, Zavaleta does repeat himself several times, intentionally so and for the sake of clarification. Here and there, he bends the rules of Spanish, mostly for brevity, thus showcasing his linguistic wit. He says e.g. things like &#8220;en su ultimidad&#8221; or &#8220;las menos palabras&#8221; or &#8220;frustr&#225;nea&#8221;, which aren&#8217;t uncommon but inventions. To me, this trick of his is responsible for most of his accomplishments as a writer and as an explainer. It also causes him to incur in pleonasm more than once, but he seems to be proud of this. Even if this makes some sentences awkward, he sticks to his academic jargon by choice. Yet in chapter two, when he opens up about the question of questions, he likes to say that word choice isn&#8217;t arbitrary, but of God. This suggests that what I call his jargon is actually his doctrine, his purism when it comes to what is and isn&#8217;t Bolivian, which ultimately isn&#8217;t a plurinational attitude. That is why he trusts so hard in two well-known ingredients of a recipe, &#8220;proletariat dictatorship&#8221; and &#8220;intellectual reform&#8221;.</p><h4>My commentary</h4><p>Zavaleta&#8217;s book offers a research on the history of Bolivian statecraft that is outstanding, but contradictory in one point that his critics haven&#8217;t touched on. They say only that he writes difficult for no reason or that he&#8217;s not a real historian because he was almost always in exile, so he didn&#8217;t work with primary sources. The latter unfortunately is worthy of discussion, and he himself justifies it in the prologue, but it doesn&#8217;t take away from his work. As for his style, I find it witty and efficient because it is almost curt, but not didactic. On the Holocaust, for example, &#8220;it is a terrific act&#8221;, he says, and since he&#8217;s not didactic he does not bother to change &#8220;terrific&#8221; to &#8220;horrific&#8221;, which would be less confusing. Things like that have left us in the hands of his &#8220;official&#8221; explainers, but they&#8217;re not his contradiction.</p><p>Zavaleta contradicts himself in the tactical flexibility with which he compares the &#8220;depeasantry&#8221; in England, Argentina, Chile, Bolivia and the USSR. According to him, the first three were successful, whereas Bolivia&#8217;s was a &#8220;lordly&#8221; and &#8220;xenophobic&#8221; failure. About the USSR, however, he&#8217;s more silent. He omits the fact that it is precisely the most genocidal of the group. According to Stephen Kotkin, a historian, the USSR was responsible for enslaving 100 million peasants, and of these, for sending 27 million to die in war. That is almost ten times the current population of Bolivia, all because of Stalin. But since this wasn&#8217;t a capitalist abuse it would not be the same, apparently. Yet it is the same kind of tactical omission that <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125160801/https://www.economist.com/the-americas/2020/11/12/the-problem-of-latin-americas-proxy-presidents">Morales-Arce</a> impose today: if the citadino outrage looks at <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125161029/https://www.lostiempos.com/actualidad/cochabamba/20191116/sacaba-6-muertos-115-heridos-200-arrestados-violenta-jornada">Sacaba</a>, that&#8217;s good. If it looks at <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125162505/https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2021/10/5/photos-bolivian-coca-leaf-growers-storm-market-after-week-long-dispute">the Yungas</a> instead, not at all. It appears that as long as it claims to be socialist, the state that demands making this disgusting choice couldn&#8217;t ever be horrific, but simply &#8220;the lesser evil&#8221;. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h1>Fran&#231;ais</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RNLQ!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b121dbb-95b2-4b0b-9fce-a3c40480ba50_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RNLQ!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b121dbb-95b2-4b0b-9fce-a3c40480ba50_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RNLQ!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b121dbb-95b2-4b0b-9fce-a3c40480ba50_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RNLQ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b121dbb-95b2-4b0b-9fce-a3c40480ba50_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RNLQ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b121dbb-95b2-4b0b-9fce-a3c40480ba50_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RNLQ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b121dbb-95b2-4b0b-9fce-a3c40480ba50_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/1b121dbb-95b2-4b0b-9fce-a3c40480ba50_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:216753,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RNLQ!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b121dbb-95b2-4b0b-9fce-a3c40480ba50_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RNLQ!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b121dbb-95b2-4b0b-9fce-a3c40480ba50_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RNLQ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b121dbb-95b2-4b0b-9fce-a3c40480ba50_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RNLQ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b121dbb-95b2-4b0b-9fce-a3c40480ba50_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Le mot &#8220;chacologues&#8221; fait r&#233;f&#233;rence &#224; ceux qui ont mal g&#233;r&#233; l&#8217;arm&#233;e Bolivienne pendant la guerre contre le Paraguay en 1932-35. Pour Zavaleta, &#224; l&#8217;&#233;poque ils &#233;taient &#224; la fois les gens au pouvoir <em>et</em> les auteurs intellectuels du carnage, tous les deux. Les soldats, cependant, &#233;taient pour la plupart des paysans qui &#233;taient r&#233;ticent &#224; s&#8217;engager &#224; l&#8217;arm&#233;e parce que leur gouvernement n&#8217;&#233;tait qu&#8217;un pantin raciste et incomp&#233;tent. Selon James Dunkerley, un historien, un total de 52,400 soldats Bolivians sont morts au combat et d&#8217;autres 4,264 sont morts en captivit&#233;. Mais les chacologues voyaient cela comme une perte raisonnable. La plupart d&#8217;entre eux n&#8217;&#233;taient m&#234;me pas des &#233;lecteurs, alors on s&#8217;en fichait.</p><p>Dans la Bolivie d&#8217;aujourd&#8217;hui, ce pass&#233; n&#8217;est gu&#232;re plus qu&#8217;un levier dans l&#8217;art de la d&#233;mocratie bellig&#233;rante. La seule diff&#233;rence est qu&#8217;il n&#8217;y a pas d&#8217;ennemis &#233;trangers; nous nous battons contre nous-m&#234;mes. Il n&#8217;est donc pas stupide de se demander: qui sont les pertes cette fois-ci? Qui nous dit d&#8217;aller &#224; la guerre? Et qui sont les r&#234;vasseurs chacologues? Ce qui suit est ma revue de l&#8217;un des manuels de l&#8217;&#233;lite de gauche Bolivienne en mati&#232;re de sciences politiques. J&#8217;esp&#233;re que sa discussion aide &#224; &#233;lucider au moins une de ces questions.</p><h4>D&#8217;abord un bref r&#233;sum&#233;</h4><p><em>Le national-populaire en Bolivie</em> est un essai historique sur &#8220;le probl&#232;me de l&#8217;&#201;tat&#8221; en Bolivie. La p&#233;riode d&#8217;int&#233;r&#234;t central (1952-80) n&#8217;a malehereusement pas &#233;t&#233; couverte &#224; cause de la mort pr&#233;matur&#233;e de l&#8217;auteur. Le premier chapitre compare l&#8217;attitude du Chili, le P&#233;rou et la Bolivie vis-&#224;-vis du &#8220;surplus&#8221; dans la Guerre du Pacifique, le deuxi&#232;me chapitre affirme et applaudit qu&#8217;un passage vers une &#8220;id&#233;e Willka du pouvoir&#8221; s&#8217;est produit depuis la Guerre F&#233;d&#233;rale, et le troisi&#232;me chapitre remonte au 19e si&#232;cle et passe en revue l&#8217;&#233;volution de &#8220;l&#8217;&#201;tat Oligarchique&#8221; jusqu&#8217;&#224; la Guerre du Chaco. Dans ce chemin analytique, le livre commence par une guerre et se termine par une autre. Il est pr&#233;vu pour &#234;tre une critique de &#8220;l&#8217;&#201;tat Oligarchique&#8221;, mais aussi un codex sur ce qu&#8217;est le bon &#233;tat pour la Bolivie &#224; la fin du 20e si&#232;cle, et qui devraient en &#234;tre ses agents. Il s&#8217;agit donc d&#8217;un essai avec une confiance particuli&#232;re dans certaines traits autoritaires de l&#8217;exercice du gouvernement.</p><p>Zavaleta est n&#233; &#224; Oruro, Bolivie, et a fui &#224; l&#8217;adolescence vers La Paz, attir&#233; par la Revoluci&#243;n del 52, une r&#233;volte qui &#233;tait on peut dire in&#233;vitable d&#233;j&#224; en 1951, moment auquel il s&#8217;agissait principalement de r&#233;cup&#233;rer une victoire &#233;lectorale arrach&#233;e. Zavaleta devait avoir 14 ans d&#8217;alors. &#192; La Paz, il semble avoir fait du travail de bureau d&#232;s ce moment-l&#224; car en 1960 sa carri&#232;re &#233;tait d&#8217;une maturit&#233; modeste. &#192; 21 ans il &#233;tait directeur adjoint du journal Pace&#241;o <em>La Naci&#243;n</em>, &#224; 24 ans il &#233;tait membre du parlement et &#224; 27 ans il &#233;tait le ministre des mines et p&#233;trole. Depuis 1964 il a &#233;tudi&#233; le droit &#224; l&#8217;UMSA, &#224; La Paz, et en 1968 il a &#233;t&#233; emprisonn&#233; par le dictateur militaire Barrientos. Un an plus tard, assez surprenamment, il est all&#233; &#224; Oxford comme professeur invit&#233; et entre les ann&#233;es 1970s et 1980s il &#233;tait professeur &#224; l&#8217;UNAM, &#224; M&#233;xico D.F., et directeur de la FLACSO. Dans des ligues Boliviennes, surtout compte tenu de son temps, ce CV fait de Zavaleta un poids lourd acad&#233;mique. Mais bien que son &#339;uvre est assez consid&#233;rable, il ne pourrait pas &#234;tre qualifi&#233; de prolifique car il a &#233;t&#233; interrompu &#224; 47 ans, pour des raisons de sant&#233;, par une mort trop pr&#233;matur&#233;e. <em>Le national-populaire en Bolivie</em> est le dernier de trois seuls livres qu&#8217;il a &#233;crit et j&#8217;ai utilis&#233; ici la premi&#232;re &#233;dition, de 1986.</p><h4>Le livre en question</h4><p>La th&#232;se de Zavaleta est que &#8220;l&#8217;&#201;tat de 1952&#8221; (1956-64) a mis fin &#224; &#8220;l&#8217;&#201;tat Oligarchique&#8221; (1884-1934) car il s&#8217;agissait du premier programme d&#8217;&#233;tat &#8220;populaire&#8221; du pays. Il puise ses arguments des cas concrets de &#8220;crise&#8221;, les guerres du Pacifique et du Chaco et surtout les insurrections de 1899 (la Guerre F&#233;d&#233;rale) et 1952 (la susdite Revoluci&#243;n del 52) &#8212; pour lui des &#8220;points originaires&#8221; de la &#8220;m&#233;moire historique&#8221; Bolivienne. Il dit qu&#8217;il y a un pays &#8220;officiel&#8221; et un pays &#8220;int&#233;rieur&#8221;, et que dans les pays en d&#233;veloppement ces deux ne co&#239;ncident pas, de sorte qu&#8217;on doit recourir &#224; la &#8220;crise&#8221; pour faire que le pays int&#233;rieur r&#233;apparaisse. Pendant la crise, dit-il, il n&#8217;y a pas de bains de sang mais plut&#244;t un sentiment pour quelque chose ancienne et profonde qui est t&#233;oriquement plus vrai que le pays officiel. En Bolivie le pays officiel serait le &#8220;seigneurial&#8221; et le pays int&#233;rieur serait le &#8220;populaire&#8221;, bien que tout le livre parle de &#8220;national-populaire&#8221; autant que de national-seigneurial. Les deux identit&#233;s sont vraiment &#8220;une confrontation entre m&#233;tis&#8221;. C&#8217;est-&#224;-dire, pas une question enti&#232;rement raciale mais une qui est bas&#233; n&#233;anmoins sur un statut racial.</p><p>Zavaleta dit que l&#8217;identit&#233; seigneuriale a vu le jour avec la Guerre du Pacifique (1879-1884). Lorsqu&#8217;il compare les trois pays en conflit, c&#8217;est pour montrer qu&#8217;en Bolivie la minorit&#233; &#8220;gamonale&#8221; n&#8217;avait aucun contact avec la majorit&#233; &#8220;paysanne&#8221;, et encore moins l&#8217;autorit&#233; pour l&#8217;envoyer &#224; la guerre. De plus, il semble que les seigneuriales n&#8217;ont pas compris pleinement la valeur du nitrate de sodium ou l&#8217;acc&#232;s aux march&#233;s mondiales qu&#8217;ils perdaient, par arrogance et incomp&#233;tence. Zavaleta dit qu&#8217;une bourgeoisie &#8220;pr&#233;-bourgeoise&#8221; a finalement &#233;merg&#233; du minage d&#8217;argent et d&#8217;&#233;tain, mais qu&#8217;elle n&#8217;a pas pu ou voulu sortir le pays du pr&#233;-capitalisme. Au lieu de &#231;a, les d&#233;penses somptuaires ont eu la pr&#233;s&#233;ance sur l&#8217;investissement, par exemple avec une bien connue <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125162820/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-18680928-1.xhtml">loi</a> de 1868 qui a expropri&#233; des terres &#8220;communautaires&#8221; pour des fermes qui ne sont jamais devenus profitables. Pour toutes ces raisons, Zavaleta trouve l&#8217;identit&#233; seigneuriale impardonnable, sa &#8220;capitulation&#8221; pendant la Guerre du Chaco (1932-35) tout aussi absurde, seulement plus sanglante.</p><p>En revanche, ce qu&#8217;il valorise dans l&#8217;identit&#233; populaire c&#8217;est &#8220;l&#8217;id&#233;e caudillo&#8221; qui la caract&#233;rise et qui en 1899 a &#233;t&#233; assum&#233;e par Z&#225;rate Willka, m&#234;me avec un l&#233;ger ton &#8220;s&#233;paratiste&#8221;. Il dit qu&#8217;au milieu des d&#233;bats r&#233;gionaux entre Sucre et La Paz, le programme de Z&#225;rate &#233;tait populaire et pratique: il avait du soutien g&#233;n&#233;ral, et si lui-m&#234;me &#233;tait absent, sa direction aurait &#233;t&#233; repris par quelqu&#8217;un d&#8217;autre sans probl&#232;me. Son r&#244;le de &#8220;Willka&#8221; &#233;tait contingent. Pour Zavaleta c&#8217;est important parce que, soutient-il, cela marque l&#8217;apparition de &#8220;l&#8217;homme libre&#8221; qui est n&#233;cessaire &#224; l&#8217;av&#232;nement du capitalisme. Ou si possible &#224; tout, pour l&#8217;av&#232;nement du socialisme, car Zavaleta pr&#233;f&#232;re la voie de l&#8217;&#233;tat &#224; celle du libre march&#233;. Ce qui nous ram&#232;ne au style de codex, subtil mais fort, de la mani&#232;re dont il pr&#233;sente son programme &#8220;national&#8221;.</p><p>En l&#8217;espace d&#8217;environ 250 pages, et dans un document qui n&#8217;est apr&#232;s tout qu&#8217;un brouillon, Zavaleta se r&#233;p&#232;te en effet plusieurs fois, &#224; volont&#233; et par souci de clart&#233;. Ici et l&#224;, il force les r&#232;gles de l&#8217;Espagnol, surtout pour abr&#233;ger, d&#233;montrant ainsi son ing&#233;niosit&#233; linguistique. Il dit par exemple des choses comme &#8220;en su ultimidad&#8221; ou &#8220;las menos palabras&#8221; ou &#8220;frustr&#225;nea&#8221;, qui ne sont pas rares mais des inventions. Pour moi, ce truc de lui est responsable de la plupart de ses accomplissements en tant qu&#8217;&#233;crivain et qu&#8217;explicateur. Cela l&#8217;am&#232;ne &#233;galement &#224; faire du pl&#233;onasme plus d&#8217;une fois, mais il semble en &#234;tre fier. M&#234;me si cela rend quelques phrases incommodes, il s&#8217;en tient &#224; son jargon acad&#233;mique par choix. Mais au chapitre deux, quand il s&#8217;ouvre sur la question des questions, il aime dire que choisir des mots n&#8217;est pas arbitraire, mais de Dieu. Cela sugg&#232;re que ce que j&#8217;appelle son jargon est plut&#244;t sa doctrine, son purisme &#224; dire ce qui est et ce qui n&#8217;est pas Bolivien, qui ultimement n&#8217;est pas une attitude plurinationale. C&#8217;est pourquoi il croit si dure &#224; deux ingr&#233;dients bien connus d&#8217;une recette, la &#8220;dictature du prol&#233;tariat&#8221; et la &#8220;r&#233;forme intellectuelle&#8221;.</p><h4>Mon commentaire</h4><p>Le livre de Zavaleta offre une enqu&#234;te sur l&#8217;histoire de l&#8217;art de gouverner Bolivien qui est exceptionnelle, mais contradictoire sur un point que ses d&#233;tracteurs n&#8217;ont pas abord&#233;. Ils disent seulement qu&#8217;il &#233;crit difficile sans raison ou qu&#8217;il n&#8217;est pas un vrai historien parce qu&#8217;il &#233;tait presque toujours en exil, donc il n&#8217;a pas travaill&#233; avec des sources primaires. Ce dernier point m&#233;rite malheureusement d&#8217;&#234;tre discut&#233;, et il le justifie lui-m&#234;me dans l&#8217;avant-propos, mais il n&#8217;enl&#232;ve rien &#224; son travail. Quant &#224; son style, je le trouve ing&#233;nieux et efficace car il est sec, mais pas didactique. Sur l&#8217;Holocauste, par exemple, &#8220;c&#8217;est un acte formidable&#8221;, dit-il, et comme il n&#8217;est pas didactique il ne prend pas la peine de remplacer &#8220;formidable&#8221; par &#8220;horrifique&#8221;, ce qui serait moins confus. De telles choses nous ont laiss&#233; entre les mains de ses explicateurs &#8220;officiels&#8221;, mais elles ne sont pas sa contradiction.</p><p>Zavaleta se contredit dans la flexibilit&#233; tactique avec laquelle il compare la &#8220;d&#233;paysannisation&#8221; en Angleterre, en Argentine, au Chili, en Bolivie et en URSS. Selon lui, les trois premiers ont r&#233;ussit, tandis que celui de la Bolivie a &#233;t&#233; un &#233;chec &#8220;seigneurial&#8221; et &#8220;x&#233;nophobe&#8221;. &#192; propos de l&#8217;URSS, cependant, il est plus silencieux. Il omet que c&#8217;est pr&#233;cis&#233;ment la plus g&#233;nocidaire du groupe. Selon Stephen Kotkin, un historien, l&#8217;URSS est responsable de l&#8217;esclavage de 100 millions de paysans, et parmi eux, de l&#8217;envoi de 27 millions mourir &#224; la guerre. C&#8217;est presque dix fois la population actuelle de la Bolivie, tout cela &#224; cause de Staline. Mais comme ce n&#8217;&#233;tait pas un abus capitaliste, ce ne serait pas la m&#234;me chose, apparemment. Mais c&#8217;est le m&#234;me genre d&#8217;omission tactique que <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125160801/https://www.economist.com/the-americas/2020/11/12/the-problem-of-latin-americas-proxy-presidents">Morales-Arce</a> impose aujourd&#8217;hui: si l&#8217;outrage citoyen regarde <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125161029/https://www.lostiempos.com/actualidad/cochabamba/20191116/sacaba-6-muertos-115-heridos-200-arrestados-violenta-jornada">Sacaba</a>, tr&#232;s bien. S&#8217;il regarde &#224; la place sur <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125162505/https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2021/10/5/photos-bolivian-coca-leaf-growers-storm-market-after-week-long-dispute">les Yungas</a>, pas du tout. En tant qu&#8217;il se dit socialiste, l&#8217;&#233;tat qui exige de faire ce choix r&#233;pugnant ne pourrait apparemment pas &#234;tre horrifique, mais simplement &#8220;le moindre mal&#8221;. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h1>Espa&#241;ol</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CM44!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00c4ecb6-3e75-4688-a787-6f333d48fb0d_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CM44!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00c4ecb6-3e75-4688-a787-6f333d48fb0d_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CM44!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00c4ecb6-3e75-4688-a787-6f333d48fb0d_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CM44!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00c4ecb6-3e75-4688-a787-6f333d48fb0d_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CM44!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00c4ecb6-3e75-4688-a787-6f333d48fb0d_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CM44!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00c4ecb6-3e75-4688-a787-6f333d48fb0d_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/00c4ecb6-3e75-4688-a787-6f333d48fb0d_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:217396,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CM44!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00c4ecb6-3e75-4688-a787-6f333d48fb0d_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CM44!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00c4ecb6-3e75-4688-a787-6f333d48fb0d_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CM44!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00c4ecb6-3e75-4688-a787-6f333d48fb0d_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CM44!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00c4ecb6-3e75-4688-a787-6f333d48fb0d_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>La palabra &#8220;chac&#243;logos&#8221; se refiere a quienes dirigieron mal al ej&#233;rcito Boliviano en la guerra contra Paraguay en 1932-35. Para Zavaleta, en aquel entonces eran la gente en el poder <em>y</em> los autores intelectuales de la matanza, todo en uno. Los soldados, por otro lado, eran en su mayor&#237;a campesinos reacios al reclutamiento porque su gobierno no era sino un t&#237;tere racista e incompetente. Seg&#250;n James Dunkerley, un historiador, durante la Guerra del Chaco un total de 52,400 soldados Bolivianos murieron en batalla y otros 4,264 murieron en cautiverio. Pero los chac&#243;logos ve&#237;an esto como una p&#233;rdida razonable. La mayor&#237;a ni siquiera eran votantes, as&#237; que a qui&#233;n le iba a importar.</p><p>En la Bolivia de hoy, este pasado es ahora poco m&#225;s que una palanca en el oficio de la democracia beligerante. La &#250;nica diferencia es que no hay enemigos extranjeros; luchamos contra nosotros mismos. As&#237; que no es tonto preguntarse: qui&#233;nes son las bajas esta vez? Qui&#233;n nos dice que hagamos la guerra? Y qui&#233;nes son los ensimismados chac&#243;logos? Lo que sigue es mi rese&#241;a de uno de los manuales de la &#233;lite de izquierda Boliviana en materia de ciencia pol&#237;tica. Espero que discutirlo ayude a dilucidar al menos una de estas preguntas.</p><h4>Primero un breve resumen</h4><p><em>Lo nacional-popular en Bolivia </em>es un ensayo hist&#243;rico sobre &#8220;el problema del Estado&#8221; en Bolivia. El periodo de inter&#233;s principal (1952-80) lamentablemente no fue abordado porque el autor muri&#243; a destiempo. El primer cap&#237;tulo compara las actitudes de Chile, Per&#250; y Bolivia en relaci&#243;n al &#8220;excedente&#8221; en juego durante la Guerra del Pac&#237;fico, el segundo cap&#237;tulo sostiene y aplaude que hubo un paso hacia una &#8220;idea Willka del poder&#8221; desde la Guerra Federal, y el tercer cap&#237;tulo regresa al siglo 19 y revisa la evoluci&#243;n del &#8220;Estado Olig&#225;rquico&#8221; hasta la Guerra del Chaco. En este camino anal&#237;tico, el libro inicia con una guerra y acaba con otra. Est&#225; pensado como una cr&#237;tica al &#8220;Estado Olig&#225;rquico&#8221;, pero adem&#225;s un c&#243;dice sobre cu&#225;l es el estado correcto para Bolivia a fines del siglo 20, y qui&#233;nes deber&#237;an ser sus agentes. Es por lo tanto un ensayo con una confianza peculiar en algunos rasgos autoritarios del ejercicio de gobierno.</p><p>Zavaleta naci&#243; en Oruro, Bolivia, y fug&#243; de adolescente a La Paz, atra&#237;do por la Revoluci&#243;n del 52, una revuelta que podr&#237;a decirse era inevitable ya en 1951, momento en el que se trataba principalmente de reclamar una victoria electoral robada. Zavaleta debi&#243; tener 14 a&#241;os en ese momento. En La Paz, al parecer hizo trabajo de escritorio ya desde entonces porque para 1960 su carrera era modestamente madura. A los 21 era subdirector del peri&#243;dico pace&#241;o <em>La Naci&#243;n</em>, a los 24 era diputado nacional y a los 27 era el ministro de minas y petr&#243;leo. Desde 1964 estudi&#243; derecho en la UMSA, en La Paz, y en 1968 fue apresado por el dictador militar Barrientos. Un a&#241;o despu&#233;s, sorprendentemente, fue a Oxford como profesor invitado y entre los 1970s y 1980s fue catedr&#225;tico en la UNAM, en M&#233;xico D.F., y director de la FLACSO. En ligas Bolivianas, sobre todo teniendo en cuenta su tiempo, este CV hace de Zavaleta acad&#233;micamente un peso pesado. Pero aunque su obra es de buen tama&#241;o, no se lo podr&#237;a llamar prol&#237;fico porque fue interrumpido a los 47, a causa de problemas de salud, por una muerte demasiado temprana. <em>Lo nacional-popular en Bolivia </em>es el &#250;ltimo de solo tres libros que escribi&#243; y aqu&#237; he usado la primera edici&#243;n, de 1986.</p><h4>El libro en cuesti&#243;n</h4><p>La tesis de Zavaleta es que el &#8220;Estado de 1952&#8221; (1956-64) acab&#243; con el &#8220;Estado Olig&#225;rquico&#8221; (1884-1934) porque fue el primer programa estatal &#8220;popular&#8221; en el pa&#237;s. Toma sus argumentos de casos concretos de &#8220;crisis&#8221;, las guerras del Pac&#237;fico y del Chaco y sobre todo las insurrecciones de 1899 (la Guerra Federal) y 1952 (la susodicha Revoluci&#243;n del 52) &#8212; para &#233;l &#8220;puntos originarios&#8221; de la &#8220;memoria hist&#243;rica&#8221; Boliviana. Dice que existe un pa&#237;s &#8220;oficial&#8221; y un pa&#237;s &#8220;interior&#8221;, y que en los pa&#237;ses en desarrollo estos dos no coinciden, por lo que se debe recurrir a la &#8220;crisis&#8221; para traer al pa&#237;s interior de vuelta a la vista. Durante la crisis, dice, no hay ba&#241;o de sangre sino m&#225;s bien un sentimiento por algo viejo y hondo que es te&#243;ricamente m&#225;s verdad que el pa&#237;s oficial. En Bolivia el pa&#237;s oficial ser&#237;a el &#8220;se&#241;orial&#8221; y el pa&#237;s interior ser&#237;a el &#8220;popular&#8221;, aunque en el libro entero se habla de &#8220;nacional-popular&#8221; tanto como de nacional-se&#241;orial. Las dos identidades son en realidad &#8220;una confrontaci&#243;n entre mestizos&#8221;. O sea, no un problema netamente racial pero s&#237; uno que est&#225; basado en un estatuto racial de todos modos.</p><p>Zavaleta dice que la identidad se&#241;orial vino a ser con la Guerra del Pac&#237;fico (1879-84). Cuando compara a los tres pa&#237;ses contendientes, esto es para mostrar que en Bolivia la minor&#237;a &#8220;gamonal&#8221; no ten&#237;a contacto con la mayor&#237;a &#8220;campesina&#8221;, mucho menos autoridad para mandarla a la guerra. Adem&#225;s, parece que los se&#241;oriales no entendieron plenamente el valor del nitrato de sodio y la salida a mercados mundiales que estaban perdiendo, por arrogancia e incompetencia. Zavaleta dice que una burgues&#237;a &#8220;preburguesa&#8221; finalmente emergi&#243; de la miner&#237;a de la plata y del esta&#241;o, pero que no logr&#243; o no quiso sacar al pa&#237;s del pre-capitalismo. En cambio, prim&#243; el gasto suntuario por encima de la inversi&#243;n, por ejemplo con una <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125162820/https://www.lexivox.org/norms/BO-L-18680928-1.xhtml">ley</a> bien conocida de 1868 que expropi&#243; tierras &#8220;de comunidad&#8221; para haciendas que nunca llegaron a ser lucrativas. Por todas estas razones, la identidad se&#241;orial le parece a Zavaleta indisculpable, su &#8220;capitulaci&#243;n&#8221; en la Guerra del Chaco (1932-35) igual de absurda, solo m&#225;s sangrienta.</p><p>En cambio, lo que valora de la identidad popular es la &#8220;idea caudillo&#8221; que le es caracter&#237;stica y que en 1899 fue asumida por Z&#225;rate Willka, si bien con un tono ligeramente &#8220;separatista&#8221;. Dice que en medio de debates regionalistas entre Sucre y La Paz, el programa de Z&#225;rate era popular y pr&#225;ctico: ten&#237;a apoyo general, y si &#233;l mismo estuviera ausente, su liderazgo habr&#237;a sido asumido por alguien m&#225;s sin mayor problema. Su funci&#243;n como &#8220;Willka&#8221; era contingente. Para Zavaleta eso es importante porque marca la aparici&#243;n del &#8220;hombre libre&#8221; que es necesaria para que el capitalismo se produzca. O de ser posible, para que el socialismo se produzca, porque Zavaleta prefiere la v&#237;a estatal en vez del libre mercado. Lo cual nos devuelve al estilo de c&#243;dice, sutil pero fuerte, de la manera en que plantea su programa &#8220;nacional&#8221;.</p><p>En el espacio de unas 250 p&#225;ginas, y en un documento que al fin y al cabo sigue siendo un borrador, Zavaleta se repite de hecho varias veces, a prop&#243;sito y para ser claro. Aqu&#237; y all&#225;, fuerza las reglas del Espa&#241;ol, en especial para abreviar, demostrando as&#237; su ingenio ling&#252;&#237;stico. Dice por ejemplo cosas como &#8220;en su ultimidad&#8221; o &#8220;las menos palabras&#8221; o &#8220;frustr&#225;nea&#8221;, que no son rarezas sino inventos. Para m&#237;, este truco suyo es responsable de la mayor&#237;a de sus logros como escritor y como explicador. Tambi&#233;n le hace incurrir en pleonasmos m&#225;s de una vez, pero parece estar orgulloso de eso. Aunque esto hace aparatosas algunas oraciones, se aferra a su jerga acad&#233;mica adrede. Pero en el cap&#237;tulo dos, cuando se sincera sobre la cuesti&#243;n de cuestiones, le gusta decir que escoger palabras no es algo adrede, sino de Dios. Esto sugiere que lo que llamo su jerga es m&#225;s bien su doctrina, su purismo a la hora de decir qu&#233; es y qu&#233; no es Boliviano, cosa que &#8220;en su ultimidad&#8221; no es una actitud plurinacional. Por eso conf&#237;a tan duro en dos conocidos ingredientes de una receta, la &#8220;dictadura proletaria&#8221; y la &#8220;reforma intelectual&#8221;.</p><h4>Mi comentario</h4><p>El libro de Zavaleta ofrece una investigaci&#243;n sobre la historia del arte de gobernar Boliviano que es excepcional, pero contradictoria en un punto que sus cr&#237;ticos no han tocado. Ellos solo dicen que escribe dif&#237;cil sin motivo o que no es un historiador de verdad porque casi siempre estuvo en exilio, as&#237; que no trabaj&#243; con fuentes primarias. Esto &#250;ltimo lamentablemente es digno de discutir, y &#233;l mismo lo justifica en el pr&#243;logo, pero no le resta valor a su trabajo. En cuanto a su estilo, me parece que es ingenioso y eficiente porque es parco, pero no did&#225;ctico. Sobre el Holocausto, por ejemplo, &#8220;es un acto b&#225;rbaro&#8221;, dice, y como no es did&#225;ctico no se molesta en cambiar &#8220;b&#225;rbaro&#8221; por &#8220;barb&#225;rico&#8221;, que ser&#237;a menos confuso. Cosas as&#237; nos han dejado en manos de sus explicadores &#8220;oficiales&#8221;, pero no son su contradicci&#243;n.</p><p>Zavaleta se contradice en la flexibilidad t&#225;ctica con que compara las &#8220;descampesinizaciones&#8221; en Inglaterra, Argentina, Chile, Bolivia y la URSS. Seg&#250;n &#233;l, las tres primeras fueron exitosas, mientras que la de Bolivia fue un fracaso &#8220;se&#241;orial&#8221; y &#8220;xen&#243;fobo&#8221;. De la URSS, en cambio, habla menos. Omite que es justamente la m&#225;s genocida del grupo. Seg&#250;n Stephen Kotkin, un historiador, la URSS fue responsable por esclavizar a 100 millones de campesinos, y de estos, por mandar a 27 millones a morir en la guerra. Esto es casi diez veces la poblaci&#243;n actual de Bolivia, todo a causa de Stalin. Pero como no fue un abuso capitalista no ser&#237;a igual, al parecer. Sin embargo es la misma clase de omisi&#243;n t&#225;ctica que <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125160801/https://www.economist.com/the-americas/2020/11/12/the-problem-of-latin-americas-proxy-presidents">Morales-Arce</a> imponen hoy: si la indignaci&#243;n citadina se fija en <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125161029/https://www.lostiempos.com/actualidad/cochabamba/20191116/sacaba-6-muertos-115-heridos-200-arrestados-violenta-jornada">Sacaba</a>, est&#225; bien. Si se fija en cambio en <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231125162505/https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2021/10/5/photos-bolivian-coca-leaf-growers-storm-market-after-week-long-dispute">los Yungas</a>, no en absoluto. Siempre y cuando diga ser socialista, el estado que exige hacer esta asquerosa elecci&#243;n al parecer no podr&#237;a ser barb&#225;rico, sino simplemente &#8220;el mal menor&#8221;. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><blockquote><h4>Reference</h4><p><em>The <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/nacional-popular-en-bolivia/oclc/491956847&amp;referer=brief_results">edition</a> I used for this review.</em></p><p><em>Last updated on 31 January 2024.</em></p></blockquote>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Coup d'état: A practical handbook - by Edward Luttwak]]></title><description><![CDATA[#Review]]></description><link>https://erblog.net/p/coup-detat-a-practical-handbook</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://erblog.net/p/coup-detat-a-practical-handbook</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[ER]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 18 Jul 2021 10:52:33 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MrGy!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F65625837-98dc-4c8b-b098-6ff1e0789ae2_2000x2000.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<blockquote><h4>Pick your language</h4><p><em>English</em></p><p><em>Fran&#231;ais</em></p><p><em>Espa&#241;ol</em></p></blockquote><h1>English</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MrGy!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F65625837-98dc-4c8b-b098-6ff1e0789ae2_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" 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src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MrGy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F65625837-98dc-4c8b-b098-6ff1e0789ae2_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/65625837-98dc-4c8b-b098-6ff1e0789ae2_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:212777,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MrGy!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F65625837-98dc-4c8b-b098-6ff1e0789ae2_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MrGy!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F65625837-98dc-4c8b-b098-6ff1e0789ae2_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MrGy!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F65625837-98dc-4c8b-b098-6ff1e0789ae2_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MrGy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F65625837-98dc-4c8b-b098-6ff1e0789ae2_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Since the events of 2019 in Bolivia, the question of whether or not a coup was involved in the ousting of ex president Morales has been in the limelight. There are mainly two answers to it, the postcolonial racism version and the undercover regime version (none of which refer to themselves in these terms, by the way). The former argues that before the elections of 20 October a coup was planned between upper-class civilians and retired military, both nostalgic of the racist status quo of yesteryear. The latter argues that this was the third time Morales&#8217; party, called Movimiento Al Socialismo (MAS), ignored the constitution in using his indigenous ancestry as a way to give him carte blanche against the regulations of this now, supposedly, democratic country. The following is my review of Luttwak&#8217;s formal definition of the coup d&#8217;&#233;tat in an attempt to shed some light into this dispute.</p><h4>First a little overview</h4><p><em>Coup d&#8217;&#233;tat: A practical handbook</em> is written in a format that the Bolivian military would call &#8220;ayuda-memoria&#8221;: punctual and pragmatic. It has five chapters, the first one defines the coup d&#8217;&#233;tat, the second gives the conditions that would make it possible, the third tells how to &#8220;incorporate&#8221; the &#8220;means of coercion&#8221; of the state, the fourth tells how to &#8220;neutralize&#8221; its &#8220;political forces&#8221; and the fifth gives the step by step from the eve until consolidating the new authority. In the right hands, the book is truly intended to lead where it aims. The guidelines that it gives are applicable in any context because they are given in functional terms. The name of the regime to be overthrown, its abuses and promises, whether it is liberal or reactionary, for Luttwak this does not matter. &#8220;A distinguishing feature of a coup&#8221;, he says, &#8220;is that it does not imply any particular political orientation&#8221;.</p><p>Luttwak was born into a wealthy Jewish family in Arad, Romania, which fled the Soviet invasion in 1947. He studied at the London School of Economics and Political Science and at Johns Hopkins University. Since the 1970s he was influential at the Pentagon and from 1980 on he was Ronald Reagan&#8217;s security consultant, then apparently he was removed for criticizing the ineffectiveness of the army. Today, according to this <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231119191402/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/09/edward-luttwak-machiavelli-of-maryland">article</a> by Thomas Meaney for <em>The Guardian</em>, he is a private &#8220;consultant&#8221;. With his experience and judgment, he helps solving &#8220;problems&#8221; in intelligence agencies as well as de facto and de jure regimes, indistinctly, and he charges very well for it. At 81, he has published more than 20 books between military histories and something the Americans call &#8220;grand strategy&#8221; studies. The first edition of <em>Coup d&#8217;&#233;tat</em>, the one I use here, was published in 1968, when he was 26. As for the words &#8220;Bolivia&#8221;, &#8220;Siglo XX&#8221;, &#8220;Catavi&#8221;, &#8220;COMIBOL&#8221;, &#8220;MNR&#8221;, they all appear literally in the book. Moreover, between 1997 and 2015 Luttwak was co-owner of an estate in Beni, so the Bolivian case is not new to him.</p><h4>The book in question</h4><p>Luttwak&#8217;s thesis is that the coup d&#8217;&#233;tat occurred imperfectly over the last 300 years and that only the modern state of the 20th century has made its essentially &#8220;democratic&#8221; value possible. In feudal monarchies, with wars, abdications and dauphin&#233;s, any change of power was &#8220;from the inside&#8221;, whereas in the modern state, he says, the coup allows the seizure of power &#8220;from the outside&#8221; and does so in a less bloody way than the classic &#8220;revolution&#8221; and &#8220;civil war&#8221; because it consists of &#8220;the infiltration of a small but critical segment of the state apparatus, which is then used to displace the government from its control over the remainder&#8221;. In other words, a coup has no warlike intentions and if well done it should go mostly unnoticed. This is only possible if a state is modern enough to function in a standardized way, like a bureaucratic machine, and large enough to be infiltrated anonymously.</p><p>Hence Luttwak&#8217;s distinction between the sophisticated states of developed countries and the semi-tribal states of developing countries (bearing in mind that he wrote this in 1968). Contrary to our prejudice, Luttwak does not imply that the semi-tribal states are good coup territory; they are very small and dependent on ethnic ties that make any infiltration impossible. Nor does he say that developed countries are invulnerable to a coup. What he does stress as the key to success is the &#8220;indifference&#8221; of the high bureaucracy, the means of coercion and the citizenry. In the educated elites, this indifference would imply acceptance, and in the uneducated masses, a lack of the understanding that is necessary to take a solid stand on the matter. He then lays out the three formal requirements for a coup: that the target-country suffers economic backwardness; that it does not have a false sovereignty, as is the case when it is overcast by a superpower; that it is not internally divided by regional forces.</p><p>The rest of the book is a manual for those disciplined and fearless enough to seize such kind of state. According to Luttwak, the most valuable asset to them is information. Although states in crisis are predisposed to the eventuality of a coup, they are large structures and cannot cover all flanks. That is why the strategy should be studying the target-country thoroughly before making any move. A good infiltration should recruit only the relevant levers in the chain of command, starting with the means of coercion and remembering that senior officers have ceremonial value but are actually expendable, whereas technicians are essential to sequester the telecommunications on D-day. Every recruit will be valuable for their ability to rally other people and will therefore be a potential danger. The coup plotters must monitor all communication from start to finish, thus avoiding any opportunistic coalition against them.</p><p>The next step is neutralizing the political forces. Luttwak explains this procedure in the fourth chapter, but it should not be scheduled until D-day, because a good coup must be an unexpected operation. If a government knew about the plan against it, a coup could no longer take place because the effective power it has is almost nil and the state machinery far exceeds it. Political forces are not always a formal part of the state; they may be public figures or party &#8220;loyalists&#8221;, which is why they must be retained and will often have&nbsp;to be the only &#8220;casualties&#8221;. As long as recruits collaborate, the high bureaucrats appreciate the danger of opposition and the citizenry is indifferent, the coup will be possible. Only this will allow to turn power into authority, and in the long run success will still remain in doubt until there is foreign diplomatic recognition as well.</p><h4>My commentary</h4><p>Luttwak&#8217;s vision is cynical and globalized. His examples range from the still nobiliary coup-like attitude of czarist Russia, through the famous French coup of 1958, to the &#8220;zombie&#8221; paramilitary of Duvalier (alias Papa Doc) in Haiti. In general, he focuses on developing countries (Africa, Middle East, South America and the Caribbean) and in that terrain he does not attribute any consistency to the Western brands of &#8220;left&#8221; and &#8220;right&#8221;. In this Luttwak is so uncondescending that it hurts, but he is honest. As he defines it, the coup would be far too sophisticated a feat for Bolivian politics. For example, neither the warlord period of the 19th century nor the dictatorships of 1964-82 would be up to its height, because they were coalitions &#8220;from the inside&#8221;, therefore &#8220;semi-tribal&#8221;, not &#8220;democratic&#8221;. Luttwak&#8217;s attention is attracted only by the coup we seem to have had in 1952. But I understand what a scandal it would be to rename our &#8220;Revolution&#8221;.</p><p>Strictly speaking, I believe what happened in 2019 was not a coup either, for two reasons. First, the political actors then referred to as &#8220;the opposition&#8221; were incompetent and therefore unable to take advantage of the mobilizations called (pejoratively) &#8220;pititas&#8221;. In those days there was disorder, violence and mutual racism yes, but not the intelligence necessary for a coup. Second, Morales said publicly that he feared a coup well before 20 October, and as Luttwak says a coup requires that its victim ignore the plan against it. By sharing his &#8220;fear&#8221;, Morales may not have been making a denunciation in good faith. Because of this, and despite recent Bolivian interest in the subject, it seems to me that the book does not match the events of 2019, nor does it match the voices who claim that a coup was part of them, whom I think are the same for the &#8220;plurinational&#8221; nationalism of today as they were for that of yesterday, known as &#8220;revolutionary&#8221;. Luttwak&#8217;s education shows how assimilated he is in the Anglo-Saxon school of thought, and to the anger of the opinionators of <em>La Raz&#243;n</em>, a newspaper currently partial with the MAS party, that explains why his name does not appear in the MNR syllabus. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h1>Fran&#231;ais</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YT6C!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82aa92f4-a01c-40a1-a411-167fdc1c50cf_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YT6C!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82aa92f4-a01c-40a1-a411-167fdc1c50cf_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YT6C!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82aa92f4-a01c-40a1-a411-167fdc1c50cf_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YT6C!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82aa92f4-a01c-40a1-a411-167fdc1c50cf_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YT6C!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82aa92f4-a01c-40a1-a411-167fdc1c50cf_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YT6C!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82aa92f4-a01c-40a1-a411-167fdc1c50cf_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/82aa92f4-a01c-40a1-a411-167fdc1c50cf_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:222609,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YT6C!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82aa92f4-a01c-40a1-a411-167fdc1c50cf_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YT6C!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82aa92f4-a01c-40a1-a411-167fdc1c50cf_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YT6C!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82aa92f4-a01c-40a1-a411-167fdc1c50cf_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!YT6C!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82aa92f4-a01c-40a1-a411-167fdc1c50cf_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Depuis les &#233;v&#233;nements de 2019 en Bolivie, la question de si un coup d&#8217;&#233;tat a &#233;t&#233; impliqu&#233; dans l&#8217;&#233;viction de l&#8217;ex pr&#233;sident Morales a &#233;t&#233; en vogue. Il y a principalement deux r&#233;ponses, la version du racisme postcolonial et la version du r&#233;gime clandestin (dont aucune se r&#233;f&#232;re &#224; elle-m&#234;me en ces termes, d&#8217;ailleurs). La premi&#232;re affirme qu&#8217;avant les &#233;lections du 20 Octobre un coup a &#233;t&#233; planifi&#233; entre des civils de la haute soci&#233;t&#233; et des militaires &#224; la retraite, tous deux nostalgiques du status quo raciste d&#8217;antan. La seconde affirme que c&#8217;&#233;tait la troisi&#232;me fois que le parti de Morales, appel&#233; Movimiento Al Socialismo (MAS), a ignor&#233; la constitution en utilisant son ascendance indig&#232;ne pour lui donner carte blanche contre les r&#232;glements de ce pays d&#233;sormais, soi-disant, d&#233;mocratique. Ce qui suit est ma revue de la d&#233;finition formelle du coup d&#8217;&#233;tat de Luttwak dans une tentative d&#8217;&#233;claircir ce litige.</p><h4>D&#8217;abord un bref r&#233;sum&#233;</h4><p><em>Coup d&#8217;&#233;tat: Un manuel pratique</em> est &#233;crit dans un format que les militaires Boliviens appelleraient &#8220;ayuda-memoria&#8221;: ponctuel et pragmatique. Il a cinq chapitres, le premier d&#233;finit le coup d&#8217;&#233;tat, le deuxi&#232;me donne les conditions qui le rendraient possible, le troisi&#232;me dit comment &#8220;incorporer&#8221; les &#8220;moyens de coercition&#8221; de l&#8217;&#233;tat, le quatri&#232;me dit comment &#8220;neutraliser&#8221; ses &#8220;forces politiques&#8221; et le cinqi&#232;me donne le pas &#224; pas de la veille &#224; la consolidation de la nouvelle autorit&#233;. Entre de bonnes mains, le livre est vraiment destin&#233; &#224; mener l&#224; o&#249; il vise. Les orientations qu&#8217;il donne sont applicables dans tous les contextes car elles sont donn&#233;es en termes fonctionnels. Le nom du r&#233;gime &#224; renverser, ses outrages et promesses, qu&#8217;il soit lib&#233;ral ou r&#233;actionnaire, pour Luttwak cela n&#8217;a pas d&#8217;importance. &#8220;Un trait distinctif du coup d&#8217;&#233;tat&#8221;, dit-il, &#8220;est qu&#8217;il n&#8217;implique aucune orientation politique particuli&#232;re&#8221;.</p><p>Luttwak est n&#233; dans une riche famille Juive en Arad, Roumanie, qui a fui l&#8217;invasion Sovi&#233;tique en 1947. Il a &#233;tudi&#233; &#224; la London School of Economics and Political Science et &#224; Johns Hopkins University. &#192; partir des ann&#233;es 1970s, il &#233;tait influent au Pentagone et &#224; partir de 1980 il &#233;tait le conseiller en s&#233;curit&#233; de Ronald Reagan, puis il a &#233;t&#233; apparemment d&#233;mis de ses fonctions pour avoir critiqu&#233; l&#8217;inefficacit&#233; de l&#8217;arm&#233;e. Aujourd&#8217;hui, selon cet <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231119191402/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/09/edward-luttwak-machiavelli-of-maryland">article</a> de Thomas Meaney pour <em>The Guardian</em>, il est un &#8220;consultant&#8221; priv&#233;. Gr&#226;ce &#224; son exp&#233;rience et son jugement, il aide &#224; r&#233;soudre des &#8220;probl&#232;mes&#8221; dans des agences d&#8217;information ainsi que dans des r&#233;gimes de facto et de jure, indistinctement, et il est tr&#232;s bien pay&#233; pour cela. &#192; 81 ans, il a publi&#233; plus de 20 livres entre des histoires militaires et ce que les Am&#233;ricains appellent des &#233;tudes de &#8220;grand strategy&#8221;. La premi&#232;re &#233;dition de <em>Coup d&#8217;&#233;tat</em>, celle que j&#8217;utilise ici, a &#233;t&#233; publi&#233;e en 1968, quand il avait 26 ans. Quant aux mots &#8220;Bolivia&#8221;, &#8220;Siglo XX&#8221;, &#8220;Catavi&#8221;, &#8220;COMIBOL&#8221;, &#8220;MNR&#8221;, ils apparaissent tous textuellement dans le livre. De plus, entre 1997 et 2015, Luttwak &#233;tait co-propri&#233;taire d&#8217;une ferme &#224; Beni, de sorte que le cas Bolivien ne lui est pas &#233;trang&#232;re.</p><h4>Le livre en question</h4><p>La th&#232;se de Luttwak est que le coup d&#8217;&#233;tat s&#8217;est produit de mani&#232;re imparfaite au cours des 300 derni&#232;res ann&#233;es et que seul l&#8217;&#233;tat moderne du 20e si&#232;cle a rendu possible sa valeur essentiellement &#8220;d&#233;mocratique&#8221;. Dans les monarchies f&#233;odales, avec des guerres, abdications et dauphin&#233;s, tout changement de pouvoir se faisait &#8220;de l&#8217;int&#233;rieur&#8221;, mais dans l&#8217;&#233;tat moderne, dit-il, le coup permet de prendre le pouvoir &#8220;de l&#8217;ext&#233;rieur&#8221; et le fait de mani&#232;re moins sanglante que la &#8220;r&#233;volution&#8221; et la &#8220;guerre civile&#8221; classiques, car il consiste en &#8220;l&#8217;infiltration d&#8217;un segment petit mais critique de l&#8217;appareil d&#8217;&#233;tat, qui est ensuite utilis&#233; pour d&#233;loger le gouvernement de son contr&#244;le sur le reste&#8221;. En d&#8217;autres termes, un coup n&#8217;a aucune intention belliqueuse et s&#8217;il est bien fait il devrait passer presque inaper&#231;ue. Cela n&#8217;est possible que si un &#233;tat est suffisamment moderne pour fonctionner de mani&#232;re standardis&#233;e, comme une machine bureaucratique, et suffisamment grand pour &#234;tre infiltr&#233; de mani&#232;re anonyme.</p><p>D&#8217;o&#249; la distinction de Luttwak entre les &#233;tats sophistiqu&#233;s des pays d&#233;velopp&#233;s et les &#233;tats semi-tribaux des pays en d&#233;veloppement (sans oublier qu&#8217;il a &#233;crit cela en 1968). Contrairement &#224; nos pr&#233;jug&#233;s, Luttwak ne sous-entend pas que les &#233;tats semi-tribaux sont un bon endroit pour un coup; ils sont tr&#232;s petits et d&#233;pendent de liens ethniques qui rendent toute infiltration impossible. Il ne dit pas non plus que les pays d&#233;velopp&#233;s sont invuln&#233;rables au coup. Ce qu&#8217;il souligne comme &#233;tant la cl&#233; du succ&#232;s, c&#8217;est &#8220;l&#8217;indiff&#233;rence&#8221; de la haute bureaucratie, des m&#233;dias coercitifs et des citoyens. Chez les &#233;lites &#233;duqu&#233;es, cette indiff&#233;rence impliquerait une acceptation, et chez les masses non &#233;duqu&#233;es, un manque de la compr&#233;hension n&#233;cessaire pour prendre une position solide sur la question. Il donne ensuite les trois conditions formelles d&#8217;un coup: que le pays cibl&#233; souffre de retard &#233;conomique; qu&#8217;il ne dispose pas d&#8217;une fausse souverainet&#233;, comme c&#8217;est le cas quand il est survol&#233; par une superpuissance; qu&#8217;il n&#8217;est pas divis&#233; en r&#233;gionalismes internes.</p><p>Le reste du livre est un manuel pour ceux qui sont assez disciplin&#233;s et intr&#233;pides pour saisir un tel &#233;tat. Selon Luttwak, l&#8217;actif le plus pr&#233;cieux pour eux est l&#8217;information. Bien que les &#233;tats en crise sont pr&#233;dispos&#233;s &#224; l&#8217;&#233;ventualit&#233; d&#8217;un coup, il s&#8217;agit de grandes structures qui ne peuvent couvrir tous les flancs. La strat&#233;gie donc doit &#234;tre d&#8217;&#233;tudier minutieusement le pays cibl&#233; avant toute d&#233;marche. Une bonne infiltration ne doit recruter que les leviers pertinents de la cha&#238;ne de commandement, en commen&#231;ant par les moyens de coercition et en se rappelant que les officiers sup&#233;rieurs ont une valeur c&#233;r&#233;moniale mais sont en r&#233;alit&#233; sacrifiables, tandis que les techniciens sont essentiels pour d&#233;tourner les t&#233;l&#233;communications le jour D. Chaque recrue sera pr&#233;cieuse pour son pouvoir de convocation et constituera donc un danger potentiel. Les traceurs du coup doivent surveiller toute communication du d&#233;but &#224; la fin, &#233;vitant ainsi une coalition opportuniste contre eux-m&#234;mes.</p><p>Le pas suivante est neutraliser les forces politiques. Luttwak explique cette proc&#233;dure au quatri&#232;me chapitre, mais il ne faut pas le programmer avant le jour D, car un bon coup doit &#234;tre une op&#233;ration surprise. Si un gouvernement ait connaissance du plan contre lui, le coup d&#8217;&#233;tat ne pourrait plus avoir lieu car le pouvoir effectif dont il dispose est presque nul et la machine d&#8217;&#233;tat le d&#233;passe largement. Les forces politiques ne font pas toujours formellement partie de l&#8217;&#233;tat; elles peuvent &#234;tre des personnalit&#233;s publiques ou des &#8220;loyalistes&#8221; du parti, de sorte qu&#8217;elles doivent &#234;tre enlev&#233;es et seront souvent les seules &#8220;pertes&#8221;. Tant que les recrues coop&#232;rent, les hauts bureaucrates appr&#233;cient le danger de s&#8217;opposer et les citoyens sont indiff&#233;rents, le coup sera possible. C&#8217;est la seule fa&#231;on de transformer le pouvoir en autorit&#233;, et &#224; long terme le succ&#232;s restera encore incertain tant qu&#8217;il n&#8217;y ait pas aussi une reconnaissance diplomatique &#224; l&#8217;&#233;tranger.</p><h4>Mon commentaire</h4><p>La vision de Luttwak est cynique et globalis&#233;e. Ses exemples vont du coup encore nobiliaire de la Russie tsariste, en passant par le c&#233;l&#232;bre coup Fran&#231;ais de 1958, jusqu&#8217;aux &#8220;zombies&#8221; paramilitaires de Duvalier (alias Papa Doc) en Ha&#239;ti. En g&#233;n&#233;ral, il se limite aux pays en d&#233;veloppement (Afrique, Moyen-Orient, Am&#233;rique du Sud et les Cara&#239;bes) et dans ce domaine il n&#8217;attribue aucune consistance aux marques Occidentales de &#8220;gauche&#8221; et &#8220;droite&#8221;. En cela Luttwak est si peu condescendant qu&#8217;il en est blessant, mais il est honn&#234;te. Comme il le d&#233;finit, le coup serait un exploit trop sophistiqu&#233; pour la politique Bolivienne. Par example, ni l&#8217;&#233;poque des chefs de guerre du 19&#232;me si&#232;cle ni les dictatures de 1964-82 ne seraient &#224; sa hauteur, car il s&#8217;agit de coalitions &#8220;de l&#8217;int&#233;rieur&#8221;, donc &#8220;semi-tribales&#8221;, pas &#8220;d&#233;mocratiques&#8221;. L&#8217;attention de Luttwak n&#8217;est pas attir&#233;e que par le coup que nous semblons avoir eu en 1952. Mais je comprends quel scandale ce serait de renommer notre &#8220;R&#233;volution&#8221;.</p><p>A proprement parler, je pense que ce qui s&#8217;est pass&#233; en 2019 ne serait pas non plus un coup, pour deux raisons. D&#8217;abord, les acteurs politiques que l&#8217;on appelait alors &#8220;l&#8217;opposition&#8221; &#233;taient incomp&#233;tents et donc incapables de profiter des mobilisations appel&#233;es (p&#233;jorativement) &#8220;pititas&#8221;. Pendant ces jours il y avait d&#233;sordre, violence et racisme mutuel oui, mais pas l&#8217;intelligence n&#233;cessaire &#224; un coup. Deuxi&#232;me, Morales a dit publiquement qu&#8217;il craignait un coup m&#234;me avant le 20 Octobre, et comme Luttwak dit un coup exige que sa victime ignore le plan contre elle. En partageant sa &#8220;peur&#8221;, peut-&#234;tre Morales n&#8217;a pas fait une d&#233;nonciation de bonne foi. Pour autant, et malgr&#233; le r&#233;cent int&#233;r&#234;t Bolivien pour le sujet, il me semble que le livre ne correspond pas aux &#233;v&#233;nements de 2019, ni aux voix qui affirment qu&#8217;un coup en a fait partie, qui sont &#224; mon avis les m&#234;mes pour le nationalisme &#8220;plurinational&#8221; d&#8217;aujourd&#8217;hui que pour celui d&#8217;hier, appel&#233; &#8220;r&#233;volutionnaire&#8221;. L&#8217;&#233;ducation de Luttwak montre &#224; quel point il est assimil&#233; &#224; l&#8217;&#233;cole de pens&#233;e Anglo-Saxonne, et &#224; la col&#232;re des opinateurs de <em>La Raz&#243;n</em>, un journal actuellement partial avec le MAS, cela explique pourquoi son nom ne figure pas dans le syllabus du MNR. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><h1>Espa&#241;ol</h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vTxW!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F14f5981b-febe-42a7-a07b-6a92450faeae_2000x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vTxW!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F14f5981b-febe-42a7-a07b-6a92450faeae_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vTxW!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F14f5981b-febe-42a7-a07b-6a92450faeae_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vTxW!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F14f5981b-febe-42a7-a07b-6a92450faeae_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vTxW!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F14f5981b-febe-42a7-a07b-6a92450faeae_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vTxW!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F14f5981b-febe-42a7-a07b-6a92450faeae_2000x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="1456" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/14f5981b-febe-42a7-a07b-6a92450faeae_2000x2000.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1456,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:209664,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vTxW!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F14f5981b-febe-42a7-a07b-6a92450faeae_2000x2000.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vTxW!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F14f5981b-febe-42a7-a07b-6a92450faeae_2000x2000.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vTxW!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F14f5981b-febe-42a7-a07b-6a92450faeae_2000x2000.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vTxW!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F14f5981b-febe-42a7-a07b-6a92450faeae_2000x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Desde los eventos de 2019 en Bolivia, la cuesti&#243;n de si hubo un coup en la destituci&#243;n del ex presidente Morales ha estado en voga. Hay b&#225;sicamente dos respuestas al respecto, la versi&#243;n del racismo postcolonial y la versi&#243;n del r&#233;gimen encubierto (ninguna de las cuales se refiere a s&#237; misma en estos t&#233;rminos, por cierto). La primera sostiene que antes de las elecciones de 20 Octubre un coup fue planeado entre civiles de clase alta y militares retirados, ambos nost&#225;lgicos por el status quo racista de anta&#241;o. La segunda sostiene que esta era la tercera vez que el partido de Morales, llamado Movimiento Al Socialismo (MAS), ignor&#243; la constituci&#243;n usando su ascendencia ind&#237;gena para darle carte blanche contra las reglas de este pa&#237;s ahora, supuestamente, democr&#225;tico. Lo que sigue es mi rese&#241;a de la definici&#243;n formal de Luttwak sobre el coup d&#8217;&#233;tat en un intento de arrojar algo de luz sobre esta disputa.</p><h4>Primero un breve resumen</h4><p><em>Coup d&#8217;&#233;tat: Un manual pr&#225;ctico </em>est&#225; escrito en un formato que el militar Boliviano llamar&#237;a &#8220;ayuda-memoria&#8221;: puntual y pragm&#225;tico. Tiene cinco cap&#237;tulos, el primero define el coup d&#8217;&#233;tat, el segundo da las condiciones que lo har&#237;an posible, el tercero dice c&#243;mo &#8220;incorporar&#8221; a los &#8220;medios de coerci&#243;n&#8221; del estado, el cuarto dice c&#243;mo &#8220;neutralizar&#8221; a sus &#8220;fuerzas pol&#237;ticas&#8221; y el quinto da el paso a paso desde la v&#237;spera hasta consolidar la nueva autoridad. En manos correctas, el libro de veras est&#225; pensado para conducir a donde apunta. Las pautas que da son aplicables en todo contexto porque est&#225;n dadas en t&#233;rminos funcionales. El nombre del r&#233;gimen a derrocar, sus atropellos y promesas, si es liberal o reaccionario, para Luttwak esto no importa. &#8220;Un rasgo distintivo del coup d&#8217;&#233;tat&#8221;, dice, &#8220;es que no implica ninguna orientaci&#243;n pol&#237;tica concreta&#8221;.</p><p>Luttwak naci&#243; en una familia Jud&#237;a pudiente en Arad, Rumania, que huy&#243; por la invasi&#243;n Sovi&#233;tica en 1947. Estudi&#243; en la London School of Economics and Political Science y en la Johns Hopkins University. Desde los 1970s fue influyente en el Pent&#225;gono y desde 1980 fue consultor de seguridad de Ronald Reagan, luego aparentemente fue retirado por criticar la ineficacia del ej&#233;rcito. Hoy en d&#237;a, seg&#250;n este <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231119191402/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/09/edward-luttwak-machiavelli-of-maryland">art&#237;culo</a> de Thomas Meaney para <em>The Guardian</em>, es un &#8220;consultor&#8221; privado. Con su experiencia y criterio, ayuda a resolver &#8220;problemas&#8221; tanto en agencias de inteligencia como en reg&#237;menes de facto y de jure, indistintamente, y cobra muy bien por ello. A sus 81 a&#241;os, ha publicado m&#225;s de 20 libros entre historias militares y algo que los Estadounidenses llaman estudios de &#8220;grand strategy&#8221;. La primera edici&#243;n de <em>Coup d&#8217;&#233;tat</em>, la que us&#233; aqu&#237;, se public&#243; en 1968, a sus 26 a&#241;os. En cuanto a las palabras &#8220;Bolivia&#8221;, &#8220;Siglo XX&#8221;, &#8220;Catavi&#8221;, &#8220;COMIBOL&#8221;, &#8220;MNR&#8221;, todas ellas aparecen literalmente en el libro. Es m&#225;s, entre 1997 y 2015 Luttwak fue co-propietario de una hacienda en Beni, as&#237; que el caso boliviano no le es extra&#241;o.</p><h4>El libro en cuesti&#243;n</h4><p>La tesis de Luttwak es que el coup d&#8217;&#233;tat se dio imperfectamente en los &#250;ltimos 300 a&#241;os y que solo el estado moderno del siglo 20 habr&#237;a hecho posible su valor esencialmente &#8220;democr&#225;tico&#8221;. En las monarqu&#237;as feudales, con guerras, abdicaciones y dauphin&#233;s, todo cambio de poder era &#8220;desde adentro&#8221;, pero en el estado moderno, dice, el coup permite tomar el poder &#8220;desde afuera&#8221; y lo hace de forma menos sangrienta que la &#8220;revoluci&#243;n&#8221; y la &#8220;guerra civil&#8221; cl&#225;sicas porque consiste en &#8220;la infiltraci&#243;n de un segmento peque&#241;o pero cr&#237;tico del aparato estatal, que luego se usa para desplazar al gobierno de su control sobre el resto&#8221;. O sea, un coup no tiene intenciones b&#233;licas y si est&#225; bien hecho deber&#237;a pasar casi inadvertido. Esto solo es posible si un estado es lo bastante moderno como para funcionar de forma estandarizada, como una m&#225;quina burocr&#225;tica, y lo bastante grande como para ser infiltrado de forma an&#243;nima.</p><p>De ah&#237; la distinci&#243;n de Luttwak entre los estados sofisticados de los pa&#237;ses desarrollados y los estados semi-tribales de los pa&#237;ses en desarrollo (teniendo en mente que escribi&#243; esto en 1968). Contra nuestro prejuicio, Luttwak no insin&#250;a que los estados semi-tribales sean buen sitio para un coup; son muy peque&#241;os y dependientes de lazos &#233;tnicos que hacen toda infiltraci&#243;n imposible. Tampoco dice que los pa&#237;ses desarrollados son invulnerables a un coup. Lo que s&#237; subraya como clave del &#233;xito es la &#8220;indiferencia&#8221; de la alta burocracia, los medios de coerci&#243;n y la ciudadan&#237;a. En las &#233;lites educadas, esta indiferencia implicar&#237;a aceptaci&#243;n, y en las masas no educadas, una falta de la comprensi&#243;n necesaria para tener una postura s&#243;lida al respecto. Entonces da los tres requisitos formales para un coup: que el pa&#237;s objetivo sufre retraso econ&#243;mico; que no tiene una soberan&#237;a falsa, como ocurre cuando lo sobrevuela una superpotencia; que no est&#225; dividido en regionalismos internos.</p><p>El resto del libro es un manual para aquellas personas con la disciplina y temeridad suficientes para arrebatar un estado de ese tipo. Seg&#250;n Luttwak, el bien m&#225;s valioso para ellas es la informaci&#243;n. Aunque los estados en crisis est&#225;n predispuestos a la eventualidad de un coup, son estructuras grandes y no pueden cubrir todos los flancos. Por eso la estrategia debe ser estudiar a fondo al pa&#237;s objetivo antes de hacer ninguna movida. Una buena infiltraci&#243;n deber&#225; reclutar solo las palancas relevantes en la cadena de mando, empezando por los medios de coerci&#243;n y recordando que los altos oficiales tienen valor ceremonial pero son prescindibles, mientras que los t&#233;cnicos son esenciales para secuestrar las telecomunicaciones en el d&#237;a D. Todo recluta ser&#225; valioso por su poder de convocaci&#243;n y por eso ser&#225; un peligro potencial. Los organizadores del coup deben intermediar toda comunicaci&#243;n de principio a fin, evitando as&#237; una coalici&#243;n oportunista en su contra.</p><p>El siguiente paso es neutralizar las fuerzas pol&#237;ticas. Luttwak explica este procedimiento desde el cap&#237;tulo cuatro, pero no se lo deber&#237;a agendar sino hasta el d&#237;a D, porque un buen coup debe ser una operaci&#243;n sorpresiva. Si un gobierno supiera del plan en su contra, el coup ya no podr&#237;a ser porque el poder efectivo que tiene es casi nulo y la maquinaria estatal lo supera con creces. Las fuerzas pol&#237;ticas no siempre son parte formal del estado; pueden ser figuras p&#250;blicas o &#8220;lealistas&#8221; del partido, por lo que deben ser retenidas y a menudo ser&#225;n las &#250;nicas &#8220;bajas&#8221;. Siempre y cuando los reclutas colaboren, los altos bur&#243;cratas aprecien el peligro de oponerse y la ciudadan&#237;a sea indiferente, el coup ser&#225; posible. Solo esto permitir&#225; convertir el poder en autoridad, y a largo plazo el &#233;xito todav&#237;a seguir&#225; en duda hasta que no se tenga adem&#225;s un reconocimiento diplom&#225;tico en el exterior.</p><h4>Mi comentario</h4><p>La visi&#243;n de Luttwak es c&#237;nica y globalizada. Sus ejemplos van del golpismo todav&#237;a nobiliario de la Rusia zarista, pasando por el c&#233;lebre coup Franc&#233;s de 1958, hasta los paramilitares &#8220;zombies&#8221; de Duvalier (alias Papa Doc) en Hait&#237;. En general se limita a los pa&#237;ses en desarrollo (&#193;frica, Medio Oriente, Am&#233;rica del Sur y el Caribe) y en ese terreno no atribuye consistencia alguna a las marcas Occidentales de &#8220;izquierda&#8221; y &#8220;derecha&#8221;. En esto Luttwak es tan poco condescendiente que hiere, pero es honesto. Como lo define, el coup ser&#237;a una haza&#241;a demasiado sofisticada para la pol&#237;tica Boliviana. Por ejemplo, ni el caudillismo del siglo 19 ni las dictaduras de 1964-82 dar&#237;an la talla, porque fueron coaliciones &#8220;desde adentro&#8221;, por eso &#8220;semi-tribales&#8221;, no &#8220;democr&#225;ticas&#8221;. Solo llama la atenci&#243;n de Luttwak el coup que al parecer hemos tenido en 1952. Pero entiendo el esc&#225;ndalo que significar&#237;a rebautizar nuestra &#8220;Revoluci&#243;n&#8221;.</p><p>En sentido estricto, creo que lo ocurrido en 2019 tampoco ser&#237;a un coup, por dos motivos. Primero, los actores pol&#237;ticos entonces llamados &#8220;la oposici&#243;n&#8221; fueron incompetentes y por tanto incapaces de aprovechar las movilizaciones llamadas (peyorativamente) &#8220;pititas&#8221;. En esos d&#237;as hubo desorden, violencia y racismo mutuo s&#237;, pero no la inteligencia necesaria para un coup. Segundo, Morales dijo temer un coup ya antes del 20 Octubre, y como dice Luttwak un coup requiere que su v&#237;ctima ignore el plan en su contra. Al compartir su &#8220;temor&#8221;, Morales podr&#237;a no haber estado haciendo una denuncia en buena fe. Por todo esto, y a pesar del reciente inter&#233;s Boliviano en el tema, me parece que el libro no se ajusta a los eventos de 2019, ni a las voces que afirman que un coup form&#243; parte de ellos, que creo son las mismas para el nacionalismo &#8220;plurinacional&#8221; de hoy como para el de ayer, llamado &#8220;revolucionario&#8221;. La educaci&#243;n de Luttwak muestra cu&#225;n asimilado est&#225; &#233;l en la escuela Anglo-Sajona de pensamiento, y para enojo de los opinadores de <em>La Raz&#243;n</em>, un peri&#243;dico actualmente parcial con el MAS, eso explica por qu&#233; su nombre no figura en el curr&#237;culo del MNR. &#182;</p><div><hr></div><blockquote><h4>Reference</h4><p><em>The <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/coups-detat-a-practical-handbook/oclc/829647740&amp;referer=brief_results">edition</a> I used for this review.</em></p><p><em>Last updated on 31 January 2024.</em></p></blockquote>]]></content:encoded></item></channel></rss>